Modern philosophy tackled big questions about knowledge, reality, and morality. Thinkers like Descartes and Hume wrestled with how we know things, what's real, and where our ideas come from. It was a time of deep thinking about the mind, the world, and our place in it.

These philosophers also dug into political ideas that still shape our world today. They asked who should be in charge and why, coming up with theories about social contracts and individual rights. Their debates about freedom, government, and society laid the groundwork for modern democracy.

Central Questions of Modern Philosophy

Epistemological Inquiries

• Modern philosophy addressed key epistemological questions focused on human knowledge limits and reliability of sensory experience versus reason
• Problem of causation and nature of causal relationships became central concern (David Hume's works)
• Philosophers explored personal identity and nature of self, investigating consciousness and continuity over time
• Relationship between God and natural world sparked debates about divine existence and intervention

Metaphysical and Ethical Considerations

• Nature of reality and distinction between appearance and essence explored through metaphysical theories (idealism, materialism)
• Ethical questions concerning morality foundations and nature of good and evil extensively debated
• Origins and legitimacy of political authority investigated, leading to social contract theory development

Epistemology in Modern Philosophy

Rationalism vs. Empiricism

• Epistemology became central focus, shifting emphasis from metaphysics to knowledge acquisition
• Debate between rationalism and empiricism emerged as key divide
  • Rationalists emphasized reason and innate ideas (Descartes, Spinoza)
  • Empiricists prioritized sensory experience (Locke, Hume)
• Theories of perception developed to explain external world knowledge acquisition
  • Representative realism (indirect perception through mental representations)
  • Idealism (reality as mental constructs)

Knowledge Foundations and Limits

• Problem of skepticism gained prominence, challenging certain knowledge possibility
• A priori (independent of experience) vs. a posteriori (derived from experience) knowledge concepts crucial in understanding human comprehension
• Truth theories developed and debated (correspondence theory, coherence theory)
• Language role in shaping knowledge and understanding became important inquiry area (later modern philosophy)

Debates on Reality, Mind, and Free Will

Mind-Body Problem and Consciousness

• Ontological status of material world debated
  • Some argued for material substance as fundamental
  • Others proposed idealism or phenomenalism
• Mind-body dualism (René Descartes) posited fundamental distinction between mental and physical substances
• Materialist philosophies emerged as dualism alternatives
  • Argued all phenomena, including consciousness, explainable through physical processes
• Interaction problem between mind and body in dualist theories led to proposed solutions
  • Occasionalism (divine intervention causes interaction)
  • Parallelism (mental and physical events correspond without causal interaction)

Free Will and Causality

• Free will concept extensively debated
  • Explored compatibility or incompatibility with determinism
  • Implications for moral responsibility examined
• Causality nature and relation to free will became significant contention point (Hume, Kant)
• Personal identity theories developed to address self continuity over time and consciousness-physical embodiment relationship

Political Philosophy and the Social Contract

Social Contract and Political Authority

• Social contract theory developed by thinkers (Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau)
  • Proposed legitimate political authority derives from governed consent
• State of nature concept introduced as hypothetical condition
  • Explained political society and government origins and justification
• Individual rights nature and extent explored
  • Natural rights and civil liberties examined in relation to state power
• Popular sovereignty idea emerged
  • Challenged traditional divine right and hereditary rule notions
  • Favored government based on people's will

Governance and Individual Liberty

• Separation of powers and checks and balances theories developed
  • Aimed to prevent political authority abuse
  • Designed to protect individual freedoms
• Individual-society relationship examined
  • Debates on proper balance between personal liberty and social order
• Economic justice, property rights, and government role in economic activity regulation addressed
  • Locke's labor theory of property
  • Smith's invisible hand concept