The interwar period saw the rise of nationalism across the Middle East. Arab, Turkish, and Iranian leaders sought to build modern nation-states, often clashing with colonial powers and traditional structures. This era laid the groundwork for independent countries and shaped regional politics for decades to come.
Nationalist movements took different forms in each country. In Turkey, Atatürk's reforms westernized society. Iran's Pahlavi dynasty pushed rapid modernization. Arab nationalism grew from anti-colonial sentiment, leading to new states and ideologies like pan-Arabism and Islamism.
Rise of Arab Nationalism
Pan-Arabism and the Arab Revolt
- Pan-Arabism emerged as a political ideology promoting unity among Arabic-speaking nations
- Emphasized shared cultural, linguistic, and historical ties among Arab peoples
- Arab Revolt (1916-1918) marked a significant milestone in Arab nationalism
- Led by Sharif Hussein of Mecca against Ottoman rule
- Supported by British forces, including T.E. Lawrence (Lawrence of Arabia)
- Revolt aimed to establish an independent Arab state in the Middle East
- Resulted in the overthrow of Ottoman control in many Arab territories
Post-World War I Agreements and Mandates
- Sykes-Picot Agreement (1916) secretly divided Ottoman territories between Britain and France
- Created artificial borders that disregarded ethnic and religious demographics
- Led to long-lasting conflicts and instability in the region
- Balfour Declaration (1917) expressed British support for a Jewish homeland in Palestine
- Contradicted earlier promises made to Arab leaders
- Laid the foundation for future Arab-Israeli conflicts
- Mandate system established by the League of Nations after World War I
- Placed former Ottoman territories under British and French administration
- Included mandates for Syria, Lebanon, Iraq, and Palestine
- Hashemite dynasty played a crucial role in Arab nationalism
- Originally ruled Hejaz region of Arabia
- Members became rulers of Iraq and Jordan under British influence
Turkish Nationalism and Reforms
Kemalism and the Turkish War of Independence
- Kemalism emerged as the founding ideology of modern Turkey
- Developed by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, the first president of Turkey
- Based on six principles: republicanism, nationalism, populism, statism, secularism, and reformism
- Turkish War of Independence (1919-1923) followed the Ottoman Empire's defeat in World War I
- Led by Mustafa Kemal against occupying Allied powers
- Resulted in the establishment of the Republic of Turkey in 1923
- Abolished the Ottoman Sultanate and Caliphate, ending centuries of imperial rule
Atatürk's Reforms and Modernization
- Atatürk implemented wide-ranging reforms to modernize Turkey
- Secularization of the state separated religion from government institutions
- Abolished religious courts and schools
- Introduced a secular legal system based on European models
- Linguistic reforms replaced the Arabic script with Latin alphabet for Turkish language
- Educational reforms expanded access to schooling and promoted literacy
- Women's rights improved through legal and social changes
- Granted women the right to vote and hold public office
- Banned polygamy and encouraged women's participation in public life
- Economic reforms focused on industrialization and state-led development
- Cultural reforms aimed to westernize Turkish society
- Adopted European-style clothing and calendar
- Encouraged Western art, music, and literature
Iranian Nationalism and Modernization
Reza Shah Pahlavi's Reign and Reforms
- Reza Shah Pahlavi came to power in 1925, founding the Pahlavi dynasty
- Implemented centralization policies to strengthen the Iranian state
- Expanded bureaucracy and modernized the military
- Reduced tribal autonomy and power of religious leaders
- Pursued rapid modernization and westernization of Iran
- Developed infrastructure (roads, railways, and factories)
- Established a national education system
- Promoted Persian nationalism and pre-Islamic Iranian identity
- Tensions arose between modernization efforts and traditional Islamic values
- Banned traditional clothing, including the veil for women
- Restricted religious practices and institutions
The White Revolution and Its Impact
- White Revolution initiated by Mohammad Reza Pahlavi (Reza Shah's son) in 1963
- Aimed to transform Iran into a modern, industrialized nation
- Key reforms included:
- Land reform redistributed agricultural land to peasants
- Women's suffrage granted voting rights to women
- Nationalization of forests and pastures
- Profit-sharing schemes for industrial workers
- Literacy corps to combat illiteracy in rural areas
- Mixed results and unintended consequences
- Weakened traditional power structures (landlords and clergy)
- Increased urbanization and social mobility
- Widened gap between modernizing elites and traditional segments of society
- Contributed to growing opposition that eventually led to the 1979 Iranian Revolution
Political Movements and Ideologies
Nationalist Parties and Movements
- Wafd Party emerged as a prominent nationalist movement in Egypt
- Founded by Saad Zaghlul in 1919
- Advocated for Egyptian independence from British rule
- Played a significant role in Egyptian politics until the 1952 revolution
- Ba'ath Party developed as a pan-Arab, socialist movement
- Founded in Syria in 1940s by Michel Aflaq and Salah al-Din al-Bitar
- Promoted Arab unity, socialism, and secularism
- Gained power in Syria and Iraq, leading to authoritarian regimes
Islamist and Socialist Ideologies
- Muslim Brotherhood established in Egypt by Hassan al-Banna in 1928
- Advocated for a return to Islamic values and practices
- Opposed Western influence and secular governments
- Spread to other Arab countries, becoming a significant political force
- Nasser and Arab socialism emerged in Egypt after the 1952 revolution
- Gamal Abdel Nasser promoted a blend of Arab nationalism and socialism
- Nationalized the Suez Canal and implemented land reforms
- Pursued pan-Arab policies, including the short-lived United Arab Republic with Syria
- Arab socialism influenced other Middle Eastern countries
- Inspired similar movements in Syria, Iraq, and Libya
- Emphasized state-led economic development and social welfare programs