Social efficiency aimed to make schools more productive by applying business principles. This movement, influenced by Frederick Taylor's scientific management, saw schools as "educational factories" and focused on optimizing efficiency through standardization and task analysis.

The approach led to curriculum changes, emphasizing practical skills over classical subjects. It also impacted teacher training, focusing on classroom management and adherence to standardized curricula. Administrators gained more control, while teachers were viewed as workers to be managed efficiently.

Social Efficiency and Scientific Management

Applying Business Principles to Education

• Social efficiency aimed to make schools more efficient and productive by applying principles from the business world
• Frederick Winslow Taylor, an engineer, developed scientific management to optimize industrial efficiency through time and motion studies, task analysis, and standardization of best practices
• Taylor's ideas were influential in the efficiency movement, which sought to eliminate waste and inefficiency in all areas of society, including education
• Schools were seen as "educational factories" that should be organized for maximum productivity and minimum waste (Ellwood Cubberley)

Curriculum Changes and Teacher Training

• Social efficiency led to changes in curriculum, with a focus on practical skills and vocational training rather than classical subjects
• Curriculum was differentiated based on students' perceived abilities and future roles in society (tracking)
• Teacher training emphasized classroom management, record-keeping, and adherence to standardized curricula rather than individual creativity
• Administrators gained more power and control over educational decision-making, while teachers were seen as workers to be managed efficiently

Measurement and Standardization in Education

Thorndike's Influence on Educational Psychology

• Edward L. Thorndike, an educational psychologist, believed that human behavior could be measured and quantified like any other natural phenomenon
• Thorndike's work laid the foundation for behaviorism in education, which emphasized observable behaviors rather than mental processes
• He developed some of the first standardized tests to measure student achievement and aptitude, such as the Thorndike Handwriting Scale
• Thorndike's "law of effect" stated that behaviors followed by satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated, while those followed by unpleasant consequences are less likely to be repeated

Standardized Testing and Measurement

• Standardized testing became widespread in schools as a way to measure student achievement and compare schools' effectiveness
• Intelligence tests, such as the Stanford-Binet IQ test, were used to track students into different educational paths based on their perceived abilities
• Norm-referenced tests compared students' performance to that of their peers, while criterion-referenced tests measured mastery of specific skills or knowledge
• Measurement in education also included grading systems, age-grade placement, and promotion policies based on test scores and other quantitative measures

Educational Tracking and Vocational Focus

Differentiated Curriculum and Tracking

• Curriculum tracking involved separating students into different educational paths based on their perceived abilities, interests, and future roles in society
• Students were often tracked into academic, general, or vocational programs, with different curricula and expectations for each track
• Tracking was seen as a way to efficiently prepare students for their future roles in society and the workforce, but it often reinforced existing social and racial inequalities
• Critics argued that tracking limited students' opportunities and perpetuated a stratified society (John Dewey)

Vocational Education and Life Adjustment Movement

• Vocational education focused on preparing students for specific trades or occupations, such as agriculture, home economics, or industrial arts
• The Smith-Hughes Act of 1917 provided federal funding for vocational education in public schools
• The life adjustment movement of the 1940s and 1950s emphasized practical skills for daily living, such as personal finance, health, and family life
• Proponents argued that vocational education provided relevant skills for the majority of students who would not attend college, while critics saw it as limiting students' options and reinforcing social inequality