Plotinus, a 3rd-century philosopher, developed Neoplatonism during a turbulent time in the Roman Empire. His ideas blended Platonic, Aristotelian, and other philosophical traditions, creating a unique system centered on the One, Intellect, and Soul.

Plotinus' philosophy differed from earlier Greek thought in key ways. While he shared similarities with Plato and Aristotle, his concept of the One transcended being and intelligibility. His ideas greatly influenced later Neoplatonists and shaped Christian, Islamic, and Jewish philosophy.

Plotinus and the Development of Neoplatonism

Key ideas of Plotinus' Neoplatonism

• The One
  • Ultimate source and principle of all reality transcends all categories of being and non-being
  • Ineffable and beyond comprehension emanates the rest of reality in a hierarchical structure (Great Chain of Being)
• The Intellect (Nous)
  • First emanation from the One contains the Platonic Forms or Ideas
  • Realm of pure intellect and true being where perfect knowledge and understanding reside
• The Soul
  • Second emanation from the One mediates between the Intellect and the material world
  • Individual souls are part of the World Soul which animates and governs the universe
• The material world
  • Lowest level of reality a shadow or reflection of the higher realms (cave allegory)
  • Realm of change, multiplicity, and imperfection where the soul is trapped in the cycle of reincarnation
• The return to the One
  • Ultimate goal of human life achieved through contemplation, purification, and union with the divine
  • Involves detachment from material desires and cultivation of virtues (asceticism) to ascend the levels of reality

Historical context of Plotinus' philosophy

• Plotinus lived in the 3rd century CE during a time of political and social instability in the Roman Empire (Crisis of the Third Century)
• Studied philosophy in Alexandria under Ammonius Saccas who synthesized Platonic and Aristotelian ideas
• Influenced by various philosophical and religious traditions
  • Platonism: Theory of Forms, immortality of the soul, idea of a transcendent divine principle (Allegory of the Cave, Phaedo)
  • Aristotelianism: Concept of the Unmoved Mover, hierarchical structure of reality (Metaphysics)
  • Pythagoreanism: Emphasis on mathematics, harmony, transmigration of souls (Pythagorean theorem, music of the spheres)
  • Stoicism: Idea of a divine logos permeating the universe (pneuma, cosmopolitanism)
  • Gnosticism: Notion of a fallen material world, need for spiritual liberation (Sethian Gnosticism, Valentinianism)

Plotinus vs earlier Greek thought

• Similarities with Platonism
  • Theory of Forms as the basis for reality (Phaedo, Republic)
  • Immortality and pre-existence of the soul (Phaedrus, Meno)
  • Idea of a transcendent divine principle (the Good in Plato, the One in Plotinus)
• Differences from Platonism
  • Plotinus' One is beyond being and intelligibility while Plato's Good is the highest Form
  • Plotinus emphasizes unity and simplicity of the divine while Plato maintains distinction between Demiurge and Forms (Timaeus)
• Similarities with Aristotelianism
  • Hierarchical structure of reality (Great Chain of Being)
  • Concept of a divine intellect (Unmoved Mover in Aristotle, Nous in Plotinus)
• Differences from Aristotelianism
  • Plotinus' One is beyond intellect and being while Aristotle's Unmoved Mover is pure intellect
  • Plotinus maintains Platonic theory of Forms while Aristotle criticizes it (Metaphysics)

Legacy in Neoplatonic tradition

• Porphyry
  • Plotinus' student and biographer systematized and clarified his teachings
  • Emphasized importance of spiritual practices and theurgy (Neoplatonic ritual magic)
• Iamblichus
  • Developed more elaborate hierarchical system of reality (henads, intellects, souls)
  • Incorporated elements of magic, mysticism, ritual into Neoplatonism (theurgy, divination)
• Proclus
  • Last major Neoplatonic philosopher in Athens synthesized Plotinus with other traditions
  • Developed complex system of triads and emanations (henads, intelligible triads, encosmic gods)
• Influence on early Christian thought
  • Augustine: Adapted Neoplatonic ideas to Christian framework (Confessions, City of God)
  • Pseudo-Dionysius: Combined Neoplatonic and Christian mysticism (apophatic theology, celestial hierarchy)
• Influence on Islamic and Jewish philosophy
  • Al-Farabi and Avicenna: Incorporated Neoplatonic ideas into philosophical systems (emanation, active intellect)
  • Solomon ibn Gabirol: Developed Neoplatonic cosmology in "Fons Vitae" (universal hylomorphism)