Alexander's conquests sparked a cultural revolution, spreading Greek ideas across the Mediterranean and Near East. This Hellenization led to a cosmopolitan world, but also political instability as his empire fractured after his death.

In response, new philosophical schools emerged, focusing on personal happiness and ethics rather than abstract metaphysics. Epicureanism, Stoicism, and Skepticism offered different paths to contentment in an uncertain world.

Historical Context and Emergence of Hellenistic Philosophical Schools

Context of Hellenistic philosophy

• Alexander the Great's conquests (336-323 BCE) spread Greek culture and language across the Mediterranean and Near East
  • Created a cosmopolitan, multicultural world with increased cultural exchange and interaction (Hellenization)
• Political instability and social upheaval followed Alexander's death as his empire was divided among his generals (the Diadochi)
  • Competing Hellenistic kingdoms emerged, such as the Ptolemaic (Egypt), Seleucid (Persia), and Antigonid (Macedon) dynasties
• Traditional Greek city-states (poleis) declined as larger, centralized monarchies rose to power
• Increased individualism and focus on personal well-being and happiness arose in response to political uncertainty
• Influx of new ideas and influences from the Near East (Zoroastrianism) and Egypt (mystery cults) diversified the intellectual landscape

Characteristics and Influence of Hellenistic Philosophical Schools

Characteristics of Hellenistic schools

• Epicureanism
  • Founded by Epicurus in Athens around 306 BCE
  • Emphasized achieving happiness (ataraxia) by pursuing moderate pleasures and avoiding pain and fear
  • Embraced atomistic materialism: the universe is composed of indivisible atoms moving in void
  • Rejected divine intervention and determinism in favor of human free will
• Stoicism
  • Founded by Zeno of Citium in Athens around 300 BCE
  • Emphasized living in accordance with reason (logos) and accepting one's fate
  • Believed in a rational, deterministic universe governed by divine providence
  • Cultivated virtues such as wisdom, justice, courage, and self-control
• Skepticism
  • Originated with Pyrrho of Elis in the late 4th century BCE
  • Emphasized suspending judgment (epoché) when faced with conflicting opinions and experiences
  • Questioned the possibility of certain knowledge and the reliability of sense perception
  • Advocated for a life of tranquility (ataraxia) by accepting uncertainty

Shift from metaphysics to ethics

• Decreased interest in abstract metaphysical questions as focus shifted to practical ethics and attaining happiness
  • Reflected the political and social instability of the Hellenistic world
• Epicureanism pursued happiness by avoiding pain and cultivating simple pleasures
• Stoicism emphasized living rationally and accepting fate, regardless of external circumstances
• Skepticism sought tranquility by suspending judgment and embracing uncertainty

Influence of Hellenistic thought

• Hellenistic ideas transmitted to the Roman world through figures like Cicero and Seneca
  • Stoic and Epicurean concepts incorporated into Roman philosophical and literary traditions
• Influenced early Christian thought, particularly in the works of Clement of Alexandria and Origen
  • Adapted Stoic ethics and the concept of divine providence
• Stoicism and Skepticism revived during the Renaissance and Age of Enlightenment
  • Influenced thinkers such as Montaigne (Essays), Descartes (Meditations), and Hume (Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding)
• Hellenistic ethical ideas remain relevant in contemporary philosophical discussions on happiness, well-being, and the human condition