The Hundred Years' War, a series of conflicts between England and France from 1337 to 1453, reshaped medieval Europe. Sparked by dynastic disputes and economic rivalries, the war saw England initially dominate with innovative military tactics and weaponry.

As the conflict dragged on, fortunes shifted. France, inspired by figures like Joan of Arc, eventually turned the tide. The war's length and intensity transformed warfare, politics, and society, leaving a lasting impact on both nations.

Causes of the Hundred Years' War

Dynastic Disputes and the Salic Law

• The death of Charles IV of France in 1328 without a direct male heir led to a succession crisis
  • Edward III of England claimed the French throne through his mother, Isabella of France
• The French nobility, following the Salic law, supported the claim of Philip VI of the House of Valois
  • The Salic law excluded females and female lines from succession to the French throne
  • This led to tensions between England and France as both monarchs asserted their right to rule

Economic and Territorial Conflicts

• Economic disputes, such as the control of the lucrative wool trade between England and Flanders, further strained the relationship between the two kingdoms
  • Flanders was a major producer of high-quality textiles and relied on English wool imports
  • The French kings sought to assert their influence over Flanders, which aligned with English interests
• English possessions in France, particularly Gascony, were a source of contention
  • The French kings sought to assert their authority over these territories
  • The English monarchs resisted French attempts to extend control over their continental holdings

Political Alliances and Complexities

• The alliance between England and the Holy Roman Empire added to the political complexities that contributed to the outbreak of the war
  • The Holy Roman Emperor, Louis IV, supported Edward III's claim to the French throne
  • This alliance threatened French interests and intensified the rivalry between the two kingdoms
• The support of Flanders for England further complicated the political landscape
  • Flanders' economic ties to England and resistance to French control made it a valuable ally for the English
  • French attempts to assert authority over Flanders drew the region into the broader Anglo-French conflict

Key Battles and Turning Points

Early English Victories

• The Battle of Sluys (1340) marked an early English victory, establishing English naval supremacy in the English Channel
  • The English fleet destroyed a larger French fleet, securing control of the Channel
  • This victory facilitated English military operations in France and protected English trade routes
• The Battle of Crécy (1346) demonstrated the effectiveness of the English longbow against the French cavalry
  • The English army, led by Edward III, defeated a larger French force using innovative tactics
  • The longbow proved to be a decisive weapon, with English archers decimating the French cavalry
• The capture of Calais (1347) provided England with a strategic foothold in northern France
  • The port city of Calais was besieged and captured by the English after the Battle of Crécy
  • Calais served as a vital supply base and staging point for English military operations in France

French Setbacks and Political Instability

• The Battle of Poitiers (1356) saw the capture of the French king, John II, by the English forces led by the Black Prince
  • The French army was decisively defeated, and King John II was taken prisoner by the English
  • This victory led to a period of political instability in France, as the Dauphin (later Charles V) struggled to govern in his father's absence
• The Treaty of Brétigny (1360) brought a temporary halt to the conflict
  • The treaty was signed following the Battle of Poitiers and the capture of John II
  • England gained significant territorial concessions in France, including Gascony and Calais
  • The treaty marked a low point for French fortunes in the war

English Resurgence under Henry V

• The Battle of Agincourt (1415) was a major English victory, despite being outnumbered
  • Henry V of England led his army to a decisive victory against a larger French force
  • The effective use of the longbow and Henry V's leadership were crucial factors in the English success
• The Treaty of Troyes (1420) disinherited the French Dauphin and recognized Henry V of England as the heir to the French throne
  • The treaty was signed following Henry V's successful military campaigns in France
  • It marked a high point for English fortunes in the war, with the English king poised to inherit the French crown
  • However, Henry V's untimely death in 1422 and the French resistance led by Joan of Arc would later reverse these gains

Notable Figures in the War

English Leaders and Military Commanders

• Edward III of England initiated the Hundred Years' War by asserting his claim to the French throne
  • He led successful campaigns in the early stages of the conflict, including the victories at Sluys and Crécy
  • Edward III's leadership set the stage for English successes in the war and established the Plantagenet dynasty's power
• The Black Prince, Edward of Woodstock, son of Edward III, was a renowned military commander
  • He led English forces to victories at Crécy and Poitiers, capturing the French king John II
  • The Black Prince's military prowess and chivalric reputation made him a celebrated figure in England
• Henry V of England, known for his military prowess, revived English fortunes in the war
  • He led the English army to victory at Agincourt and negotiated the Treaty of Troyes
  • Henry V's military successes and diplomatic achievements secured his position as heir to the French throne

French Resistance and Leadership

• Joan of Arc, a French peasant girl, inspired French resistance against the English
  • She led the lifting of the Siege of Orléans (1429) and the coronation of Charles VII at Reims
  • Joan of Arc's leadership and influence boosted French morale and contributed to a series of French successes
  • Although she was eventually captured and executed by the English in 1431, her legacy as a national heroine endured
• The French king Charles V, known as "the Wise," implemented successful military and diplomatic strategies
  • During his reign (1364-1380), Charles V worked to recover French territories lost to the English
  • He reformed the French army, promoted the use of guerrilla tactics, and forged alliances to counter English power
  • Charles V's leadership helped to stabilize France and set the stage for future French victories

Intermittent Warfare and Prolonged Duration

Phases of Conflict and Periods of Truce

• The Hundred Years' War was not a continuous conflict but rather a series of intermittent phases of fighting
  • The war was punctuated by periods of truce and relative peace, such as the Treaty of Brétigny (1360) and the Treaty of Troyes (1420)
  • These truces provided temporary respites but ultimately failed to resolve the underlying causes of the conflict
• The recurring nature of the dynastic dispute, with successive English and French monarchs renewing their claims to the French throne, prolonged the war
  • As new generations of rulers came to power, they often sought to assert their rights and renew the struggle for the French crown
  • This cyclical pattern of conflict and temporary resolution contributed to the war's extended duration

External Factors and Constraints

• The Black Death (1348-1350) and other outbreaks of plague disrupted military campaigns and led to temporary lulls in the fighting
  • The widespread loss of life and economic disruption caused by the plague hindered both sides' ability to sustain large-scale military operations
  • The demographic and social upheaval wrought by the Black Death also had long-term effects on the conduct of the war
• Financial constraints and domestic political issues in both England and France contributed to the intermittent nature of the conflict
  • Both sides struggled to maintain the resources necessary for sustained warfare, leading to periods of reduced military activity
  • Internal political struggles, such as the Peasants' Revolt in England (1381) and the Jacquerie in France (1358), diverted attention and resources from the war effort

Evolution of Military Tactics and Technology

• The gradual evolution of military tactics and technology contributed to the prolonged nature of the war
  • The increased use of infantry and artillery changed the nature of battlefield engagements
  • Innovations such as the English longbow and the development of gunpowder weapons altered the balance of power between the two sides
• As both sides adapted to new battlefield realities, the war took on a protracted character
  • The introduction of new tactics and technologies required time for armies to adjust and develop effective countermeasures
  • The shifting nature of warfare prolonged the conflict as each side sought to gain an advantage through military innovation