Quotation marks, apostrophes, and hyphens are key players in punctuation. They help us quote speech, show possession, form contractions, and create compound words. Mastering these marks is crucial for clear writing.

Each punctuation mark has its own rules and quirks. Quotation marks enclose speech, apostrophes show ownership, and hyphens join words. Knowing when and how to use them can make your writing more precise and professional.

Quotation Marks

Usage of Double and Single Quotation Marks

• Double quotation marks enclose direct speech, quoted material, and certain titles
• Use double quotation marks for short works like articles, essays, songs, and poems
• Single quotation marks typically appear within double quotation marks
• British English often reverses this convention, using single quotes as the primary and double quotes for nested quotations
• Quotations within quotations alternate between double and single marks
  • First level uses double quotes
  • Second level uses single quotes
  • Third level reverts to double quotes

Punctuation with Quotation Marks

• Commas and periods always go inside closing quotation marks in American English
• Question marks and exclamation points go inside if they're part of the quoted material, outside if not
• Colons and semicolons always go outside closing quotation marks
• Dialogue punctuation follows specific rules
  • Each speaker's words start with a new paragraph
  • Use a comma to separate the quote from dialogue tags (he said, she replied)
  • Use a period if the dialogue tag comes before the quote

Titles and Special Uses

• Use quotation marks for titles of shorter works (articles, short stories, songs)
• Longer works like books, movies, and albums typically use italics instead
• Quotation marks can indicate irony, sarcasm, or unusual usage (so-called "experts")
• Avoid overusing quotation marks for emphasis, as this can appear unprofessional

Apostrophes

Possessive Apostrophes

• Add 's to singular nouns to show possession (the dog's bone)
• For plural nouns ending in s, add only an apostrophe (the dogs' bones)
• Irregular plurals not ending in s still add 's (children's toys)
• Personal pronouns have special possessive forms without apostrophes (his, hers, its, theirs)
• Use apostrophe s for indefinite pronouns (somebody's mistake)
• Joint possession uses apostrophe only on the last noun (Tom and Jerry's house)
• Separate possession requires apostrophes for each noun (Tom's and Jerry's cars)

Contractions and Omissions

• Apostrophes replace omitted letters in contractions (don't, it's, you're)
• They can also indicate omitted numbers in years (the '90s)
• Use apostrophes for plural letters, numbers, and symbols to avoid confusion (mind your p's and q's)
• Contractions are generally avoided in formal writing
• Common contractions include negative forms (isn't, won't) and verb forms with pronouns (I've, they'd)
• Be careful not to confuse contractions with similar-looking words (it's vs. its, you're vs. your)

Hyphens

Compound Words and Phrases

• Hyphens join words to form compound adjectives before nouns (well-known author)
• They're often unnecessary when the compound follows the noun (the author is well known)
• Use hyphens with compound numbers from twenty-one to ninety-nine
• Hyphens clarify meaning in potentially ambiguous phrases (small-business owner vs. small business owner)
• Prefixes like self-, ex-, and all- often require hyphens (self-aware, ex-president)
• Some compounds become closed over time, losing their hyphens (email, online)

Special Uses of Hyphens

• Hyphens separate syllables when breaking words at line ends
• They're used in spelled-out fractions (two-thirds)
• Hyphens appear in compound last names (Sarah Jessica Parker-Broderick)
• Use them with hanging prefixes and suffixes (pre- and post-war)
• Hyphens join letters to words (T-shirt, X-ray)
• They create number spans in informal writing (pages 18-24)
• Hyphens avoid awkward letter combinations (co-owner, de-emphasize)