The Ottoman Empire, Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, and Sweden faced significant challenges during the 16th and 17th centuries. These powers struggled with internal issues and external threats, reshaping the balance of power in Eastern Europe.

Meanwhile, Russia emerged as a major player under Peter the Great's leadership. His reforms and military successes, particularly in the Great Northern War, established Russia as a dominant force in the region, altering the European state system.

Ottoman Empire

Decline and Challenges

• Ottoman Empire experienced a gradual decline in the 16th and 17th centuries due to a combination of factors
• Overextension of territory and resources strained the empire's ability to effectively govern and defend its borders
• Corruption and decentralization of power weakened the central government's control over provincial administrators and military leaders
• Economic challenges arose from inflation, debasement of currency, and disruption of trade routes (Silk Road)
• European powers, such as Austria and Russia, posed increasing military threats to Ottoman territories in Europe and the Mediterranean

Suleiman the Magnificent's Reign

• Suleiman the Magnificent (r. 1520-1566) was one of the most prominent and successful Ottoman sultans
• Expanded the empire to its greatest territorial extent, including conquests in Europe (Hungary, Balkans), Middle East (Iraq, Yemen), and North Africa (Algiers, Tripoli)
• Implemented legal and administrative reforms that centralized power and improved governance, earning him the title "Lawgiver"
• Patronized art, literature, and architecture, leading to a cultural golden age (Suleymaniye Mosque in Istanbul, poetry of Bâkî)
• Formed alliances and diplomatic relations with European powers, such as France, to counter Habsburg influence

Janissaries and Military Challenges

• Janissaries were elite infantry units that formed the backbone of the Ottoman military, known for their discipline and loyalty to the sultan
• Recruited through the devşirme system, where young Christian boys from conquered territories were conscripted, converted to Islam, and trained as soldiers
• Over time, the Janissaries became a powerful political force, influencing succession and government policies
• Janissaries' increasing involvement in politics and resistance to modernization efforts contributed to the empire's decline and weakened military effectiveness
• Advancements in European military technology (firearms, artillery) and tactics gradually eroded the Ottoman military advantage

Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth

Formation and Structure

• Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was formed by the Union of Lublin in 1569, uniting the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania
• Became one of the largest and most populous states in Europe, spanning from the Baltic Sea to the Black Sea
• Adopted an elective monarchy, where the king was chosen by the nobility (szlachta) rather than through hereditary succession
• Developed a unique political system known as the "Noble's Democracy," which granted extensive rights and privileges to the nobility

Liberum Veto and Political Dysfunction

• Liberum veto was a parliamentary procedure that allowed any single member of the Sejm (parliament) to veto legislation or dissolve the session
• Intended to protect minority rights and ensure consensus, but often led to political paralysis and gridlock
• Foreign powers, such as Russia and Prussia, exploited the liberum veto to interfere in Polish internal affairs and weaken the state
• Inability to enact reforms and modernize the state left the Commonwealth vulnerable to external threats and internal instability

Partitions and Decline

• Partitions of Poland refers to the series of territorial divisions of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth by neighboring powers (Russia, Prussia, and Austria) in the late 18th century
• First Partition (1772) saw the Commonwealth lose nearly 30% of its territory and half of its population to the partitioning powers
• Attempts at reform, such as the Constitution of May 3, 1791, which established a hereditary monarchy and strengthened the central government, were met with opposition from neighboring powers and conservative nobles
• Second (1793) and Third (1795) Partitions resulted in the complete dissolution of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and its disappearance from the map of Europe for over a century

Rise of Russia and Sweden

Great Northern War and Shifting Power Balance

• Great Northern War (1700-1721) was a major conflict between Sweden and a coalition led by Russia, Denmark-Norway, and Saxony-Poland
• Sweden, a dominant power in Northern Europe under Charles XII, sought to maintain its supremacy and territorial control in the Baltic region
• Russia, under Peter the Great, aimed to challenge Swedish power and gain access to the Baltic Sea to promote trade and modernization
• Decisive Russian victory at the Battle of Poltava (1709) marked a turning point in the war and the beginning of Sweden's decline as a great power
• Treaty of Nystad (1721) ended the war, with Russia gaining significant territories (Estonia, Livonia, Ingria) and emerging as a major European power

Peter the Great's Reforms and Modernization

• Peter the Great (r. 1682-1725) implemented sweeping reforms to modernize Russia and transform it into a European-style state
• Traveled to Western Europe on the Grand Embassy (1697-1698) to study advanced technologies, military practices, and governance models
• Modernized the Russian military by introducing Western-style training, equipment (flintlock muskets), and tactics, and creating a professional standing army and navy
• Promoted education and cultural reforms, such as establishing the Academy of Sciences, encouraging translation of Western books, and adopting Western dress and customs
• Founded St. Petersburg (1703) as Russia's "window to Europe," a modern capital city designed to rival the great cities of Western Europe

Charles XII and Sweden's Decline

• Charles XII (r. 1697-1718) was a skilled military leader who sought to defend Sweden's territorial possessions and maintain its status as a great power
• Led successful campaigns early in the Great Northern War, including victories over Denmark-Norway (Battle of Narva, 1700) and Saxony-Poland (Battle of Kliszów, 1702)
• Invasion of Russia in 1707 proved disastrous, culminating in the decisive defeat at the Battle of Poltava and the destruction of the Swedish army
• Spent years in exile in the Ottoman Empire, attempting to secure support for a renewed war against Russia
• Death during a campaign in Norway (1718) left Sweden weakened and unable to regain its former power and influence in Northern Europe