The U.S. court system is a complex hierarchy of federal and state courts, each with distinct roles and jurisdictions. Federal courts include district courts, circuit courts of appeals, and the Supreme Court, while state courts handle a broader range of cases. This structure ensures a balanced approach to justice.

Trial courts focus on establishing facts and applying laws, while appellate courts review decisions for errors. The principle of judicial review allows courts to evaluate the constitutionality of laws, serving as a crucial check on government power. Understanding this system is key to grasping the judicial process.

Federal Court System Hierarchy

District Courts and Circuit Courts

• District courts serve as trial courts in the federal system where most federal cases originate
  • 94 federal judicial districts exist, including at least one in each state, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico
  • Handle a wide range of cases (criminal prosecutions, civil lawsuits, constitutional challenges)
• Circuit courts of appeals function as intermediate appellate courts
  • Divided into 13 circuits nationwide (11 regional circuits, D.C. Circuit, Federal Circuit)
  • Review decisions from district courts within their jurisdiction
  • Panels of three judges typically hear cases

Supreme Court and Specialized Courts

• Supreme Court stands as the highest court in the federal system
  • Consists of nine justices appointed for life by the President and confirmed by the Senate
  • Has discretionary review power through the writ of certiorari process
  • Decides on average 70-80 cases per year out of thousands of petitions
• Specialized federal courts handle specific types of cases
  • Court of International Trade adjudicates cases involving import transactions and customs duties
  • U.S. Tax Court resolves disputes between taxpayers and the Internal Revenue Service
  • Federal Court of Claims addresses monetary claims against the U.S. government (contract disputes, property takings)

Trial vs Appellate Courts

Functions and Procedures

• Trial courts serve as courts of original jurisdiction where cases are first heard and decided
  • Present evidence, witness testimony, and exhibits
  • Judge or jury determines facts of the case (factfinder role)
  • Apply law to established facts and render verdict or judgment
• Appellate courts review decisions made by lower courts for errors of law or procedure
  • Do not hear new evidence or testimony
  • Review record of lower court proceedings (transcripts, exhibits, legal arguments)
  • Focus on legal issues rather than factual disputes
  • Can affirm, reverse, modify lower court's decision, or remand for further proceedings

Purposes and Outcomes

• Trial courts aim to resolve disputes and determine guilt or liability
  • Provide forum for adversarial presentation of evidence and arguments
  • Issue final judgments that can be enforced (damages, injunctions, criminal sentences)
• Appellate courts serve to ensure proper application of law and maintain consistency
  • Correct legal errors made by lower courts
  • Clarify and interpret laws and constitutional provisions
  • Develop legal precedents that guide future cases (stare decisis principle)
  • Harmonize conflicting decisions from different lower courts

State vs Federal Court Jurisdiction

State Court Jurisdiction

• State courts possess general jurisdiction to hear most types of cases
  • Handle family law matters (divorce, child custody, adoption)
  • Resolve contract disputes and personal injury claims
  • Adjudicate criminal cases involving violations of state laws
• Concurrent jurisdiction allows state courts to hear some federal law cases
  • Can adjudicate claims arising under federal statutes unless Congress specifies exclusive federal jurisdiction
  • Examples include civil rights cases under 42 U.S.C. § 1983 and federal employment discrimination claims

Federal Court Jurisdiction

• Federal courts have limited jurisdiction as outlined in Article III of the U.S. Constitution
  • Federal question jurisdiction covers cases involving U.S. Constitution, federal laws, or treaties
    • Examples include First Amendment free speech cases, patent infringement suits
  • Diversity jurisdiction permits hearing cases between citizens of different states
    • Amount in controversy must exceed statutory threshold (currently $75,000)
    • Designed to provide neutral forum and prevent state court bias
• Exclusive federal jurisdiction exists for certain case types
  • Bankruptcy proceedings
  • Patent and copyright disputes
  • Federal antitrust litigation
  • Cases involving federal government as a party

Judicial Review and Significance

Process and Establishment

• Judicial review empowers courts to examine and potentially invalidate laws or government actions conflicting with the Constitution
  • Established by landmark Supreme Court case Marbury v. Madison (1803)
  • Chief Justice John Marshall's opinion asserted the Court's authority to strike down unconstitutional laws
• Process typically begins when a party challenges constitutionality of a law or government action
  • Can arise in various contexts (criminal defense, civil rights lawsuit, regulatory challenge)
  • Courts interpret Constitution and apply its principles to the case at hand

Impact and Controversies

• Judicial review serves as crucial check on legislative and executive branches
  • Ensures government actions comply with constitutional principles
  • Protects individual rights and liberties from majority overreach
  • Examples include Brown v. Board of Education (1954) desegregating schools, Obergefell v. Hodges (2015) legalizing same-sex marriage
• Decisions through judicial review can have far-reaching effects on law and policy
  • Establish binding precedents for lower courts
  • Often prompt legislative responses or constitutional amendments
• Critics argue judicial review grants too much power to unelected judges
  • Concern over "judicial activism" and courts making policy decisions
  • Debate over proper methods of constitutional interpretation (originalism vs. living constitution)