The judicial branch's power is constrained by constitutional and prudential limitations. These rules ensure courts only hear actual cases, maintain separation of powers, and avoid overstepping their role in the government.

Justiciability, standing, and the political question doctrine are key concepts. They determine which cases courts can hear, who can bring lawsuits, and what issues are best left to other branches, preserving the judiciary's legitimacy and authority.

Justiciability and Judicial Power

The Concept of Justiciability

• Justiciability determines whether a case is suitable for judicial review and resolution by the courts
• Derived from Article III of the U.S. Constitution, which limits federal court jurisdiction to actual "cases" or "controversies"
• Acts as a threshold requirement that must be satisfied before a court can hear and decide a case on its merits
• Plays a crucial role in maintaining the separation of powers and preventing judicial encroachment on legislative and executive roles
• Ensures courts only address concrete legal disputes and refrain from issuing advisory opinions or deciding hypothetical or abstract questions (e.g., a court cannot issue an opinion on the constitutionality of a proposed law before it is enacted)

The Importance of Justiciability in the Separation of Powers

• Justiciability limitations help maintain the proper balance between the three branches of government (legislative, executive, and judicial)
• Prevents the judiciary from overstepping its constitutional role and interfering with the functions of the other branches
• Ensures that courts focus on resolving actual legal disputes rather than engaging in policymaking or political decision-making
• Preserves the legitimacy and authority of the judicial branch by limiting its involvement in matters better suited for the political process
• Encourages the resolution of certain issues through the democratic process and the actions of elected officials accountable to the public

Constitutional Limits on Judicial Power

The Case or Controversy Requirement

• Article III, Section 2 of the U.S. Constitution limits federal court jurisdiction to "cases" and "controversies"
• Mandates the existence of a genuine legal dispute between adverse parties before a court can exercise its judicial power
• Prevents federal courts from issuing advisory opinions, which are non-binding statements on legal issues not presented in an actual case (e.g., a court cannot provide an opinion on the constitutionality of a proposed legislation at the request of a legislator)
• Prohibits courts from deciding moot cases, where the legal dispute has been resolved or no longer has any practical significance (e.g., a case challenging the constitutionality of a law that has been repealed)

Ripeness and the Prohibition on Speculative Decision-Making

• The case or controversy requirement bars courts from hearing cases that are not ripe for adjudication
• A case is not ripe when the legal dispute has not yet matured or become sufficiently concrete
• Courts must avoid engaging in speculative or hypothetical decision-making based on potential future events or consequences
• Ripeness ensures that courts have a clear factual record and a fully developed legal dispute before rendering a decision
• Prevents courts from issuing premature judgments that may have unintended or far-reaching implications (e.g., a court cannot decide on the constitutionality of a regulation before it has been finalized and implemented)

Prudential Limits on Judicial Power

The Standing Doctrine

• Standing is a prudential limitation that requires a plaintiff to demonstrate a concrete and particularized injury caused by the defendant's conduct, which can be redressed by a favorable court decision
• Ensures that only parties with a direct stake in the outcome of a case can bring a lawsuit
• Prevents courts from deciding cases based on generalized grievances or abstract interests (e.g., a taxpayer cannot challenge a government spending program simply because they disagree with it)
• Plaintiffs must show that they have suffered or will imminently suffer an actual injury, not merely a hypothetical or speculative one
• The injury must be fairly traceable to the defendant's actions and likely to be redressed by a favorable court ruling

Mootness and the Avoidance of Advisory Opinions

• Mootness is a prudential limitation that bars courts from deciding cases where the legal dispute has been resolved or no longer has any practical significance
• Prevents courts from issuing advisory opinions or deciding cases that will not have any real-world impact on the parties involved
• A case becomes moot when the issues presented are no longer "live" or the parties lack a legally cognizable interest in the outcome (e.g., a case challenging the constitutionality of a law becomes moot if the law is repealed during the litigation)
• Exceptions to mootness include cases capable of repetition yet evading review (e.g., challenges to short-term government policies that expire before a case can be fully litigated) and voluntary cessation (e.g., a defendant voluntarily stops the challenged conduct but is likely to resume it in the future)

Political Question Doctrine

Defining the Political Question Doctrine

• The political question doctrine is a justiciability limitation that restricts federal courts from hearing cases that involve issues best left to the political branches (legislative and executive) for resolution
• Rooted in the separation of powers principle and the belief that certain matters are more appropriately addressed by the political branches rather than the courts
• When a court determines that a case presents a political question, it will decline to hear the case, leaving the matter to be resolved by the political branches
• The doctrine helps maintain the balance of power between the branches of government and prevents the judiciary from overstepping its role by deciding inherently political issues

Factors Indicating the Presence of a Political Question

• The Supreme Court has identified several factors that indicate the presence of a political question:
  1. Textually demonstrable constitutional commitment of the issue to a coordinate political department (e.g., the power to declare war is explicitly granted to Congress)
  2. Lack of judicially discoverable and manageable standards for resolving the issue (e.g., the court lacks clear legal standards to determine the validity of a foreign policy decision)
  3. The impossibility of deciding the issue without an initial policy determination of a kind clearly for nonjudicial discretion (e.g., the court cannot decide the case without making a policy judgment that is better left to the political branches)
  4. The impossibility of a court's undertaking independent resolution without expressing lack of respect due to coordinate branches of government (e.g., the court's decision would imply a lack of respect for the decisions made by the legislative or executive branches)
  5. An unusual need for unquestioning adherence to a political decision already made (e.g., the court's decision would undermine the finality of a political decision, such as the ratification of a constitutional amendment)
  6. The potentiality of embarrassment from multifarious pronouncements by various departments on one question (e.g., the court's decision could lead to conflicting statements or actions by different branches of government)
• Examples of issues that have been considered political questions include foreign policy decisions (e.g., the recognition of foreign governments), the impeachment process (e.g., the House's decision to impeach a federal official), and the ratification of constitutional amendments (e.g., the validity of a state's ratification of an amendment)