Congressional committees are the powerhouses of lawmaking. They shape bills, conduct oversight, and develop specialized expertise. Standing committees handle most legislation, while select and joint committees tackle specific issues or cross-chamber concerns.

Committees wield enormous influence over the legislative process. They can make or break bills, shape policy through hearings and markups, and hold the executive branch accountable. This system allows Congress to efficiently divide its work and develop deep policy knowledge.

Congressional Committees and Their Roles

Types of Congressional Committees

• There are three main types of congressional committees: standing committees, select committees, and joint committees. Each type serves a distinct role in the legislative process.
• Standing committees are permanent panels in the House and Senate that handle bills and issues within their designated jurisdictions (agriculture, armed services, appropriations). Most bills are referred to a standing committee based on the committee's area of expertise.
• Select committees are temporary committees created for a specific purpose, such as investigating a particular issue (Watergate scandal, Benghazi attack) or event. They typically have a set duration and are disbanded once their task is complete.
• Joint committees are made up of members from both the House and Senate. They are usually established on a permanent basis to oversee specific policy areas (taxation, the economy) or handle housekeeping tasks, like running the Library of Congress.

Role of Conference Committees

• Conference committees are temporary, bicameral panels formed to reconcile differences between House and Senate versions of a bill. Their compromise bill must be approved by both chambers before being sent to the president.
• Conference committees consist of senior members from the relevant standing committees in each chamber. The number of conferees from each party is proportional to the party ratio on the standing committees.
• Conferees negotiate to resolve disagreements over bill language, funding levels, or policy provisions. The final conference report cannot introduce new matters not included in either the House or Senate bill.
• If the conference committee fails to reach an agreement, the bill dies. If a compromise is reached, the conference report is sent back to the House and Senate for a final vote, with no further amendments allowed.

Standing, Select, and Joint Committees

Functions of Standing Committees

• Standing committees are the workhorses of Congress, responsible for considering bills, conducting hearings and investigations, and exercising oversight over executive agencies within their jurisdiction.
• Standing committees hold markup sessions to debate, amend, and vote on bills before sending them to the full chamber for consideration. They also draft committee reports explaining a bill's purpose and provisions.
• Standing committees have the power to subpoena witnesses and documents as part of their oversight responsibilities. They can compel testimony from government officials, private citizens, and industry representatives.
• Standing committees play a key role in the budget and appropriations process. The House and Senate Appropriations Committees craft annual spending bills that fund federal agencies and programs.

Roles of Select and Joint Committees

• Select committees investigate issues of national importance, such as government scandals (Iran-Contra affair), social problems (aging, substance abuse), or foreign policy matters. They hold hearings, collect evidence, and issue final reports with findings and recommendations.
• Joint committees handle matters of concern to both chambers, such as the economy, taxation, and the Library of Congress. The joint budget committees develop the annual congressional budget resolution.
• Most joint committees do not have legislative authority, but the Joint Committee on Atomic Energy (now defunct) could report legislation due to the sensitive nature of nuclear policy.
• Other examples of joint committees include the Joint Economic Committee, which studies the U.S. economy and makes policy recommendations, and the Joint Committee on the Library, which oversees the Library of Congress.

Committees' Influence on Legislation

Shaping Bills through the Committee Process

• Committees are the engines of the legislative process, allowing Congress to efficiently divide its work and develop policy expertise. Very few bills become law without being shaped by the committee process.
• Standing committees have the power to "kill" legislation by refusing to act on bills referred to them. Committees determine which bills are considered, amended, and reported to the full chamber.
• Committees actively seek input from the executive branch, outside experts, and key stakeholders when drafting bills. Hearings provide a forum for gathering information, building consensus, and generating support for legislation.
• Committee chairs have significant influence over the legislative process. They decide when (and if) to hold hearings, which witnesses to call, and whether to markup a bill. The chair's priorities and preferences can determine a bill's fate.

Conducting Oversight through Committees

• Committees are essential for congressional oversight of the executive branch. They monitor the activities of federal agencies, investigate potential abuses of power, and ensure programs are implemented as Congress intended.
• The oversight process includes both formal committee hearings and informal communications between committee members and agency officials. Effective oversight can lead to legislative reforms.
• Committees can request information from agencies, subpoena documents, and compel testimony from government officials. They can also hold the executive branch accountable through the power of the purse, by cutting funding for programs or imposing spending restrictions.
• High-profile oversight hearings, such as those on the Watergate scandal or the 9/11 terrorist attacks, can shape public opinion and lead to significant policy changes or reforms.

Legislative Specialization and Committees

Developing Policy Expertise through Committee Service

• Legislative specialization refers to the development of policy expertise by members of Congress within specific issue areas. Committees facilitate specialization by allowing members to focus on particular topics.
• Members typically seek committee assignments that align with the interests of their constituents (agricultural districts, defense industry) or their own policy goals. Serving on a committee allows members to build knowledge and influence legislation in that domain.
• Committee leadership positions, such as chair and ranking member, are highly sought after due to the power to set the committee agenda and shape policy debates. Seniority and party loyalty are key factors in attaining these posts.
• Committees foster close working relationships between members and stakeholders in their policy domain, including executive agencies, advocacy groups, and industry representatives. This allows for the exchange of ideas and information.

Pros and Cons of Specialization

• Specialization has benefits, like enhancing Congress's ability to tackle complex issues (healthcare reform, climate change), but it can also lead to turf wars between committees and the neglect of issues that fall outside the jurisdiction of any one panel.
• Committees can become too closely aligned with the industries they oversee, leading to concerns about regulatory capture and undue influence by special interests. This is sometimes referred to as "iron triangles" (alliances between congressional committees, executive agencies, and interest groups).
• The increasing complexity of modern policy issues has led to a reliance on committee staff for expertise and guidance. This can give unelected staff members significant influence over the legislative process.
• Despite the potential drawbacks, the committee system remains essential for managing Congress's workload and ensuring thorough consideration of legislation. Reforms such as congressional term limits have been proposed to address some of the negative aspects of specialization.