Memory encoding is a complex process involving sensory input, attention, and working memory. It transforms information into long-term storage through consolidation, semantic encoding, and episodic encoding. These processes work together to create lasting memories.

Rehearsal strategies, retrieval cues, and various factors influence memory storage. Elaborative rehearsal, context reinstatement, and deep processing enhance retention. Sleep, emotional salience, and retrieval practice also play crucial roles in strengthening memories over time.

Encoding and Rehearsal Strategies

Encoding for long-term memory

• Sensory input reception through visual iconic memory stores brief visual impressions, auditory echoic memory retains sound information, and other sensory modalities process tactile, olfactory inputs
• Attention allocation directs cognitive resources selectively to specific stimuli or divides focus among multiple tasks
• Working memory processing engages phonological loop for verbal information, visuospatial sketchpad for visual and spatial data, and central executive coordinates cognitive processes
• Consolidation strengthens neural connections (synaptic) and integrates memories across brain regions (systems)
• Semantic encoding extracts meaning from information and relates it to existing knowledge structures
• Episodic encoding incorporates contextual details and personal experiences into memory formation (time, place, emotions)

Maintenance vs elaborative rehearsal

• Maintenance rehearsal involves simple repetition to keep information in short-term memory (repeating phone number)
• Elaborative rehearsal processes information deeply by connecting it to existing knowledge for better long-term retention
• Maintenance rehearsal shows limited effectiveness for long-term storage compared to elaborative strategies
• Elaborative techniques include mnemonic devices (acronyms), visualization (mental imagery), creating associations (linking new info to familiar concepts), and generating examples

Retrieval cues and context

• Retrieval cues act as external stimuli triggering memory recall (verbal prompts, visual images, scents, emotional states)
• Encoding specificity principle states memory recall improves when retrieval context matches encoding environment
• State-dependent memory enhances recall when physical or mental state during retrieval matches encoding condition (studying while caffeinated)
• Context reinstatement improves recall by recreating original learning environment (mentally visualizing study space)
• Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon occurs during partial recall, resolved through retrieval cues (first letter, related words)

Factors in memory storage

• Depth of processing influences memory strength with deep encoding (analyzing meaning) outperforming shallow encoding (focusing on surface features)
• Emotional salience enhances memory for emotionally charged events (first kiss, traumatic experiences)
• Rehearsal frequency and spacing affect retention with distributed practice (spreading study sessions) more effective than mass practice (cramming)
• Sleep consolidates memories with different sleep stages playing specific roles (REM for procedural memory)
• Interference occurs when other information disrupts memory (proactive: old info interferes with new, retroactive: new info interferes with old)
• Decay gradually fades memories over time without active rehearsal or retrieval
• Retrieval practice strengthens memory through testing or self-quizzing (flashcards)
• Schema integration fits new information into existing knowledge structures for easier recall
• Distinctiveness makes unique or unusual information more memorable (bizarre imagery technique)
• Levels of representation affect memory encoding from surface level (exact wording) to situation model (overall meaning and context)