Polysaccharides and glycoconjugates are crucial players in carbohydrate biology. These complex molecules serve as energy storage, structural components, and key mediators of cellular interactions, expanding our understanding of carbohydrates beyond simple sugars.

From starch in plants to glycogen in animals, these molecules showcase the versatility of carbohydrates. Their diverse structures and functions highlight the importance of carbohydrates in biological systems, from energy storage to cell signaling and structural support.

Storage Polysaccharides

Starch and Glycogen: Structure and Function

• Starch serves as the primary storage polysaccharide in plants
  • Composed of two types of glucose polymers: amylose and amylopectin
  • Amylose consists of long, unbranched chains of glucose units linked by α-1,4 glycosidic bonds
  • Amylopectin contains branched chains with α-1,4 and α-1,6 glycosidic bonds
• Glycogen functions as the main storage polysaccharide in animals
  • Highly branched structure similar to amylopectin
  • Stored primarily in liver and muscle cells
  • Rapidly mobilized when energy is needed

Branching and Linkages in Storage Polysaccharides

• Branched polysaccharides (amylopectin and glycogen) offer advantages over unbranched ones
  • Increased solubility due to exposed hydroxyl groups
  • Faster degradation for quick energy release
  • More compact storage in cells
• Alpha (α) linkages characterize storage polysaccharides
  • α-1,4 glycosidic bonds form the main chain
  • α-1,6 glycosidic bonds create branch points
  • Enzymes like amylase can readily break down α linkages for energy utilization

Structural Polysaccharides

Cellulose: The Plant Cell Wall Component

• Cellulose serves as the primary structural polysaccharide in plants
  • Linear polymer of glucose units linked by β-1,4 glycosidic bonds
  • Forms strong, rigid fibers that provide support to plant cell walls
  • Indigestible by most animals due to β linkages
  • Hydrogen bonding between cellulose chains creates microfibrils
• Industrial applications of cellulose include
  • Paper production
  • Textile manufacturing (cotton, rayon)
  • Biofuel production

Chitin: The Arthropod Exoskeleton Material

• Chitin functions as a structural polysaccharide in arthropods and fungi
  • Polymer of N-acetylglucosamine units linked by β-1,4 glycosidic bonds
  • Forms the exoskeleton of insects, crustaceans, and other arthropods
  • Provides strength and flexibility to fungal cell walls
• Chitin applications in various fields
  • Biomedical engineering (wound dressings, tissue scaffolds)
  • Agriculture (biopesticides, soil enhancers)
  • Water treatment (heavy metal removal)

Glycoconjugates

Glycoproteins: Carbohydrate-Protein Complexes

• Glycoproteins consist of proteins covalently linked to carbohydrate chains
  • N-linked glycosylation attaches carbohydrates to asparagine residues
  • O-linked glycosylation connects carbohydrates to serine or threonine residues
• Functions of glycoproteins in biological systems
  • Cell recognition and signaling (blood type antigens)
  • Immune system regulation (antibodies)
  • Protein folding and stability (many secreted proteins)

Proteoglycans: Highly Glycosylated Proteins

• Proteoglycans contain a core protein with multiple glycosaminoglycan chains
  • Glycosaminoglycans include chondroitin sulfate, heparan sulfate, and keratan sulfate
  • Found in extracellular matrix and on cell surfaces
• Roles of proteoglycans in cellular processes
  • Maintaining tissue hydration and structural integrity
  • Regulating growth factor signaling
  • Facilitating cell adhesion and migration

Glycolipids: Lipids with Attached Carbohydrates

• Glycolipids incorporate carbohydrate moieties attached to lipid molecules
  • Gangliosides contain complex oligosaccharides linked to ceramide
  • Cerebrosides consist of a single sugar residue attached to ceramide
• Functions of glycolipids in biological membranes
  • Cell-cell recognition and communication
  • Signal transduction
  • Membrane organization and stability