Art from prehistory to the Middle Ages spans an incredible 2.5 million years. This period saw the birth of human creativity, from cave paintings to Gothic cathedrals. As societies evolved, so did artistic techniques, materials, and purposes.

Key developments include the rise of monumental architecture, realistic sculpture, and religious iconography. Art shifted from purely functional to symbolic, reflecting changing beliefs and power structures. This era laid the foundation for all Western art that followed.

Chronological Overview of Art from Prehistory to Middle Ages

Chronology of art periods

• Prehistoric Art
  • Paleolithic (Old Stone Age) spanned 2.5 million to 10,000 BCE, characterized by cave paintings and portable art
  • Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age) lasted from 10,000 to 8,000 BCE, marked by smaller stone tools and rock art
  • Neolithic (New Stone Age) occurred 8,000 to 3,000 BCE, featured first pottery and monumental architecture
• Ancient Near Eastern Art
  • Sumerian civilization flourished 3500-2000 BCE, developed cuneiform writing and ziggurats
  • Akkadian Empire ruled 2334-2154 BCE, produced naturalistic sculptures and relief carvings
  • Babylonian culture thrived 1894-539 BCE, created the Code of Hammurabi and Ishtar Gate
  • Assyrian Empire dominated 911-612 BCE, known for monumental palace reliefs and winged bull sculptures
  • Persian Empire lasted 550-330 BCE, built grand palaces like Persepolis and introduced new artistic motifs
• Ancient Egyptian Art
  • Old Kingdom (2686-2181 BCE) built the Great Pyramids and developed canonical art style
  • Middle Kingdom (2055-1650 BCE) saw revival of artistic traditions and more naturalistic portraiture
  • New Kingdom (1550-1069 BCE) produced grand temples, elaborate tomb paintings, and Amarna period art
• Aegean Art
  • Cycladic art flourished 3200-2000 BCE, known for marble figurines with simplified forms
  • Minoan civilization thrived 3000-1100 BCE, created vibrant frescoes and intricate pottery
  • Mycenaean culture dominated 1600-1100 BCE, built fortified palaces and produced gold masks
• Ancient Greek Art
  • Geometric period (900-700 BCE) featured abstract designs on pottery and small bronze figures
  • Archaic period (700-480 BCE) saw development of monumental sculpture and black-figure pottery
  • Classical period (480-323 BCE) achieved ideal balance in sculpture and architecture (Parthenon)
  • Hellenistic period (323-30 BCE) expanded artistic boundaries with dramatic sculptures and complex compositions
• Etruscan Art flourished 800-264 BCE, produced elaborate tomb paintings and bronze sculptures
• Roman Art spanned 509 BCE-476 CE, developed realistic portraiture and architectural innovations (Colosseum)
• Early Christian Art emerged 200-500 CE, adapted Roman styles for new religious content (catacombs)
• Byzantine Art lasted 330-1453 CE, created intricate mosaics and icons with gold backgrounds
• Islamic Art began 622 CE, developed non-figurative decoration and calligraphy in religious contexts
• Early Medieval Art
  • Migration Period (300-900 CE) produced intricate metalwork with animal motifs
  • Hiberno-Saxon art (600-850 CE) created elaborate illuminated manuscripts (Book of Kells)
  • Carolingian Renaissance (780-900 CE) revived classical learning and artistic traditions
  • Ottonian period (951-1024 CE) saw imperial patronage of manuscript illumination and metalwork
• Romanesque Art flourished 1000-1200 CE, built massive stone churches with sculptural portals
• Gothic Art developed 1140-1500 CE, characterized by soaring cathedrals and stained glass windows

Characteristics of major art periods

• Prehistoric Art
  • Cave paintings depicted animals and hunting scenes using natural pigments (Lascaux, Altamira)
  • Venus figurines emphasized fertility features, carved from stone, ivory, or clay (Venus of Willendorf)
  • Megalithic structures arranged massive stones for ritual purposes (Stonehenge, Newgrange)
• Ancient Near Eastern Art
  • Ziggurats and temples served as homes for deities and centers of worship (Great Ziggurat of Ur)
  • Relief sculptures narrated historical events and mythological stories (Assyrian palace reliefs)
  • Cylinder seals carved with intricate designs, used for administrative purposes
• Ancient Egyptian Art
  • Pyramids and temples demonstrated precise engineering and cosmic alignment (Great Pyramid of Giza)
  • Hieroglyphic writing combined pictographs and phonetic symbols to record information
  • Stylized figure representation followed strict canons of proportion and pose
• Aegean Art
  • Frescoes and pottery featured vibrant colors and fluid, naturalistic forms (Bull-Leaping Fresco)
  • Marine motifs reflected importance of sea trade and island culture
  • Palace complexes integrated art and architecture in elaborate layouts (Palace of Knossos)
• Ancient Greek Art
  • Idealized human forms embodied concepts of beauty and virtue in sculpture (Discobolus)
  • Architectural orders (Doric, Ionic, Corinthian) established rules for column design and proportions
  • Red-figure and black-figure pottery techniques allowed for detailed narrative scenes
• Etruscan Art
  • Tomb paintings depicted banquet scenes and religious beliefs (Tomb of the Leopards)
  • Bronze sculptures showcased advanced casting techniques (Chimera of Arezzo)
  • Terracotta sarcophagi featured lively portrait sculptures of the deceased (Sarcophagus of the Spouses)
• Roman Art
  • Realistic portraiture captured individual likenesses in sculpture and painting
  • Architectural innovations (arch, vault, dome) allowed for larger interior spaces (Pantheon)
  • Historical relief sculptures commemorated military victories and imperial achievements (Trajan's Column)
• Early Christian Art
  • Catacomb paintings used symbolic imagery to convey Christian concepts
  • Basilica architecture adapted Roman building types for Christian worship
  • Good Shepherd motif represented Christ's role as protector of the faithful
• Byzantine Art
  • Mosaics and icons used gold backgrounds to create otherworldly, spiritual effect
  • Domed churches symbolized the heavenly realm (Hagia Sophia)
  • Strict iconographic conventions developed for depicting religious figures and scenes
• Islamic Art
  • Geometric patterns created complex, infinite designs to reflect divine order
  • Calligraphy elevated the written word as an art form, especially Quranic verses
  • Arabesque designs combined floral and geometric motifs in intricate patterns
• Early Medieval Art
  • Illuminated manuscripts preserved and transmitted knowledge through decorated texts
  • Metalwork and jewelry showcased intricate techniques (Sutton Hoo treasure)
  • Animal interlace designs created complex patterns in sculpture and manuscript decoration
• Romanesque Art
  • Massive stone architecture emphasized thick walls and rounded arches
  • Sculptural portal decorations taught biblical stories to largely illiterate population
  • Fresco paintings covered church interiors with narrative and symbolic imagery
• Gothic Art
  • Pointed arches and ribbed vaults allowed for taller, more light-filled spaces
  • Stained glass windows created colorful, narrative-rich illumination (Chartres Cathedral)
  • Naturalistic sculpture showed increasing attention to human emotion and individuality

Historical context of artistic development

• Prehistoric Art
  • Hunter-gatherer societies developed symbolic thinking and early artistic expression
  • Agriculture and settled communities led to more permanent art forms and structures
  • Spiritual beliefs and rituals inspired cave paintings and figurative sculptures
• Ancient Near Eastern Art
  • City-states and empires centralized power and resources for monumental art projects
  • Polytheistic religions demanded visual representations of deities and myths
  • Writing systems evolved alongside artistic traditions, leading to narrative art forms
• Ancient Egyptian Art
  • Belief in afterlife drove development of elaborate burial practices and tomb art
  • Agricultural society dependent on Nile River influenced cyclical worldview and art themes
  • Divine kingship concept led to monumental architecture and idealized royal portraiture
• Aegean Art
  • Maritime trade facilitated cultural exchange and artistic innovation
  • Palace-centered societies concentrated wealth and patronage for luxury arts
  • Influence from surrounding civilizations blended with local traditions
• Ancient Greek Art
  • City-state political structure encouraged civic pride and public art projects
  • Emphasis on human achievement inspired idealized depictions of gods and athletes
  • Mythology and athletic competitions provided rich subject matter for artists
• Etruscan Art
  • Prosperous trading culture allowed for importation of luxury goods and artistic ideas
  • Influence from Greek and Near Eastern art merged with local funerary traditions
  • Strong belief in afterlife led to elaborate tomb decorations and burial goods
• Roman Art
  • Expansion of empire brought diverse artistic traditions under Roman influence
  • Emphasis on law, engineering, and pragmatism shaped functional and propagandistic art
  • Patron-client relationships and imperial propaganda drove public art commissions
• Early Christian Art
  • Spread of Christianity in Roman Empire necessitated new visual language
  • Persecution led to development of hidden symbolism in early Christian art
  • Acceptance of Christian faith by Constantine shifted art toward more public expression
• Byzantine Art
  • Continuation of Roman imperial traditions merged with Christian iconography
  • Orthodox Christianity as state religion standardized religious artistic conventions
  • Cultural fusion of East and West created unique artistic synthesis
• Islamic Art
  • Spread of Islam across diverse cultures led to regional variations in artistic expression
  • Prohibition of figural imagery in religious contexts spurred development of abstract decoration
  • Emphasis on the word of God elevated calligraphy to high art form
• Early Medieval Art
  • Fall of Western Roman Empire fragmented artistic traditions
  • Spread of Christianity to Northern Europe introduced new artistic motifs and techniques
  • Monastic culture preserved classical knowledge and developed manuscript illumination
• Romanesque Art
  • Feudal society and growth of monasticism provided new patrons for art and architecture
  • Pilgrimage routes facilitated spread of artistic styles across Europe
  • Revival of large-scale stone architecture reflected increased stability and resources
• Gothic Art
  • Urban growth and rise of universities fostered intellectual and artistic innovation
  • Increasing wealth and power of the Church funded ambitious building projects
  • Scholasticism and new understanding of light influenced architectural design

Evolution of artistic styles

• Materials and techniques

  • Natural pigments (ochre, charcoal) gave way to more varied color palettes
  • Bronze and iron casting allowed for more complex and durable sculptures
  • Stone cutting advanced from rough-hewn megaliths to precisely fitted ashlar masonry
  • Fresco techniques evolved from simple washes to complex multi-layer applications

• Representation of the human figure

  • Stylized prehistoric forms emphasized symbolic features (Venus figurines)
  • Greek ideal proportions based on mathematical ratios (Polykleitos' Canon)
  • Roman verism captured individual characteristics in portraiture
  • Medieval art used hierarchical scaling to indicate spiritual importance

• Architectural developments

  1. Post-and-lintel systems limited span and height (Greek temples)
  2. Roman arches and vaults allowed for larger interior spaces
  3. Byzantine domes created vast, uninterrupted spaces
  4. Gothic ribbed vaults and flying buttresses enabled soaring heights

• Subject matter

  • Animalistic and fertility themes dominated prehistoric art
  • Historical and mythological narratives gained prominence in classical art
  • Religious imagery became central in Early Christian and medieval periods

• Perspective and spatial representation

  • Flat, symbolic representations in early art lacked depth
  • Egyptian art used hierarchical scaling to show importance
  • Greek and Roman art experimented with foreshortening and atmospheric perspective
  • Byzantine art rejected naturalistic space for spiritual hierarchy

• Patronage and function of art

  • Communal rituals inspired prehistoric cave paintings and megaliths
  • Royal and religious commissions dominated ancient and medieval art
  • Art served as political propaganda in imperial Rome and Byzantium
  • Devotional art for private use emerged in late medieval period

• Cultural exchange and artistic influence

  • Trade routes (Silk Road) facilitated exchange of artistic ideas and techniques
  • Conquest and colonization spread artistic styles (Hellenistic art in Asia)
  • Local traditions synthesized with imported styles (Gandharan art)

• Symbolism and iconography

  • Visual language evolved from simple pictographs to complex allegories
  • Religious iconography became standardized in Byzantine and medieval art
  • Symbolic color use developed (gold backgrounds in Byzantine icons)

• Role of the artist

  • Anonymous craftsmen created most prehistoric and ancient art
  • Greek sculptors and painters gained individual recognition
  • Medieval artists worked in workshops and guilds
  • Social status of artists gradually increased over time