Francisco Pizarro, a Spanish conquistador, led the conquest of the Inca Empire in Peru. Born poor and uneducated, he rose through military service and exploration to become a key figure in Spain's colonization of the Americas.

Pizarro's expeditions to Peru culminated in the capture of Emperor Atahualpa and the fall of Cusco. He founded Lima, established Spanish rule, and implemented the encomienda system, profoundly impacting indigenous populations and shaping colonial Peru's future.

Early life in Spain

• Francisco Pizarro was born in Trujillo, Spain around 1471 or 1476 to a poor family
• Received little formal education and was illiterate for most of his life
• Worked as a swineherd in his youth, tending to pigs on his father's farm

Military career before Peru

Service in the Spanish army

• Enlisted in the Spanish army as a teenager, serving in various campaigns in Italy
• Gained valuable military experience and skills during his time in the army
• Developed a reputation as a brave and capable soldier

Participation in the conquest of Hispaniola

• Joined the expedition of Nicolás de Ovando to Hispaniola (present-day Haiti and Dominican Republic) in 1502
• Participated in the subjugation of the indigenous Taíno population
• Acquired land and enslaved indigenous people through the encomienda system

Involvement in the conquest of Panama

• Accompanied Vasco Núñez de Balboa in the exploration and conquest of Panama in 1513
• Played a key role in the establishment of the first European settlement on the Pacific coast of the Americas (Santa María la Antigua del Darién)
• Learned valuable lessons about conquering and governing new territories

Partnership with Diego de Almagro

Meeting and alliance formation

• Met Diego de Almagro, a fellow Spanish conquistador, in Panama around 1515
• Formed a partnership based on their shared ambition to explore and conquer new lands
• Agreed to share the risks, costs, and potential rewards of future expeditions

Financing of Peruvian expeditions

• Pizarro and Almagro pooled their resources to finance expeditions to the south (present-day Peru)
• Secured additional funding from investors, such as the priest Hernando de Luque
• Used their combined wealth and influence to outfit ships, hire men, and purchase supplies

Division of roles and responsibilities

• Pizarro served as the primary military leader and decision-maker during expeditions
• Almagro provided logistical support, recruited men, and managed supplies
• Collaborated closely in planning and executing their conquest of Peru

First expedition to Peru (1524-1525)

Exploration of the Pacific coast

• Set sail from Panama with a small fleet of ships and approximately 80 men
• Explored the Pacific coast of South America, reaching as far south as the Inca Empire's northern borders
• Gathered information about the region's geography, resources, and indigenous populations

Encounters with indigenous populations

• Made contact with various indigenous groups along the coast, including the Tumbes people
• Engaged in small-scale trade and exchange of gifts with local communities
• Observed signs of the Inca Empire's wealth and sophistication (gold and silver artifacts, well-organized settlements)

Challenges and setbacks faced

• Faced harsh weather conditions, including storms and strong currents along the coast
• Suffered from food shortages and disease outbreaks among the crew
• Encountered resistance from some indigenous groups, leading to occasional skirmishes and casualties

Second expedition to Peru (1526-1528)

Further exploration and reconnaissance

• Launched a second expedition with a larger force of men and better-equipped ships
• Explored the Peruvian coastline more extensively, reaching as far south as present-day Ecuador
• Gathered more detailed information about the Inca Empire's strength, organization, and resources

Capture of local rulers for information

• Captured and interrogated local chiefs and rulers to obtain intelligence about the Inca Empire
• Used these captives as guides and interpreters to facilitate communication with indigenous populations
• Gained valuable insights into the Inca political structure, military capabilities, and internal divisions

Establishment of early settlements

• Founded the settlement of San Miguel de Piura in 1532, the first Spanish town in Peru
• Used San Miguel as a base of operations for further exploration and conquest
• Began to establish a foothold in the region and demonstrate Spanish presence and power

Third expedition and conquest of Peru (1531-1533)

Arrival in Inca territory with reinforcements

• Returned to Peru in 1531 with a larger force of approximately 180 men and 27 horses
• Received reinforcements and supplies from Panama and other Spanish settlements
• Prepared for a more aggressive campaign of conquest against the Inca Empire

Capture of Emperor Atahualpa at Cajamarca

• Marched inland to the Inca city of Cajamarca, where Emperor Atahualpa was holding court
• Arranged a meeting with Atahualpa under the pretext of peaceful negotiations
• Launched a surprise attack on the Inca entourage, capturing Atahualpa and massacring thousands of his unarmed attendants

Ransom payment and execution of Atahualpa

• Held Atahualpa for ransom, demanding a room filled with gold and silver in exchange for his release
• Collected a vast treasure of precious metals, but ultimately executed Atahualpa in 1533 on charges of treason and idolatry
• Used the ransom payment to finance further conquest and reward his men

March to Cusco and consolidation of control

• Marched to the Inca capital of Cusco, taking advantage of the power vacuum left by Atahualpa's death
• Encountered minimal resistance due to the Inca Empire's internal divisions and the psychological impact of Atahualpa's execution
• Installed a puppet ruler, Manco Inca, to maintain the appearance of Inca continuity while asserting Spanish control

Founding of Lima and establishment of Spanish rule

Selection of location and layout of the city

• Chose the location for the new Spanish capital, Ciudad de los Reyes (later known as Lima), in 1535
• Selected a site near the Pacific coast with access to a natural harbor and fresh water from the Rímac River
• Designed the city layout according to a grid pattern, with a central plaza and key buildings (cathedral, government palace)

Distribution of land and labor to Spanish settlers

• Divided the conquered Inca lands among Spanish settlers, granting them control over agricultural areas and indigenous labor
• Awarded encomiendas, which entitled Spanish holders to extract tribute and labor from indigenous communities
• Used this system to reward and incentivize Spanish colonization and exploitation of Peru's resources

Implementation of encomienda system

• Established the encomienda system as the primary means of organizing indigenous labor and tribute
• Assigned groups of indigenous people to Spanish encomenderos, who were responsible for their "protection" and Christian instruction
• Exploited indigenous labor for agriculture, mining, and other economic activities, leading to widespread abuse and demographic decline

Conflict with Diego de Almagro

Disputes over territory and governance

• Developed tensions with Diego de Almagro over the division of conquered territories and political power
• Disagreed on the boundaries of their respective jurisdictions, with Almagro claiming the city of Cusco
• Accused each other of encroaching on their rights and failing to honor their original partnership agreement

Battle of Las Salinas and Almagro's execution

• Fought against Almagro's forces at the Battle of Las Salinas near Cusco in 1538
• Defeated Almagro and captured him, consolidating Pizarro's control over Peru
• Ordered the execution of Almagro, eliminating his main rival and solidifying his position as the supreme authority in the region

Impact on Spanish control of Peru

• Eliminated the most significant challenge to Pizarro's rule, allowing him to govern Peru with greater autonomy
• Created resentment and a desire for revenge among Almagro's supporters, sowing the seeds for future conflicts
• Demonstrated the ruthlessness and determination of Pizarro in maintaining his power and control over the conquered territories

Pizarro's governance of Peru

Administrative and economic policies

• Established a centralized government based in Lima, with Pizarro as the governor and captain-general
• Implemented policies to control the indigenous population, such as forced resettlement into reducciones (planned towns)
• Promoted the exploitation of Peru's mineral wealth, particularly silver from the Potosí mines

Treatment of indigenous populations

• Subjected indigenous people to forced labor, taxation, and religious conversion
• Disrupted traditional Inca social structures and economic systems, leading to widespread poverty and cultural dislocation
• Presided over a catastrophic demographic decline due to disease, overwork, and violence

Promotion of Spanish settlement and colonization

• Encouraged Spanish immigration to Peru, offering land grants and opportunities for wealth and social advancement
• Supported the development of Spanish-style cities, agriculture, and commerce
• Laid the foundations for a Spanish colonial society that would dominate Peru for nearly three centuries

Assassination and legacy

Conspiracy and murder by Almagro supporters

• Faced a conspiracy by a group of disaffected Almagro supporters, led by Diego de Almagro the Younger (Almagro's son)
• Was attacked and killed in his palace in Lima on June 26, 1541
• Marked the end of Pizarro's direct rule and the beginning of a period of political instability in Peru

Consequences for Spanish rule in Peru

• Led to a power struggle among various Spanish factions vying for control of the colony
• Resulted in the eventual intervention of the Spanish Crown, which sought to assert greater authority over the region
• Contributed to the consolidation of the Viceroyalty of Peru as a key component of the Spanish Empire

Historical assessment and significance of Pizarro's actions

• Remembered as one of the most important figures in the Spanish conquest of the Americas, responsible for the fall of the Inca Empire
• Criticized for his brutality, treachery, and exploitation of indigenous populations
• Left a complex legacy that encompasses both the destruction of pre-Columbian civilizations and the foundation of a new colonial order in South America