The 1970s had two major U.S. oil crises. In 1973 OPEC (led by Arab members) imposed an oil embargo after the U.S. backed Israel in the Yom Kippur War, cutting supply and quadrupling world oil prices—this caused fuel shortages and long lines at gas stations. In 1979 the Iranian Revolution sharply reduced Iranian oil output and sparked panic buying; global supply tightened again and prices spiked. Both shocks exposed U.S. dependence on foreign oil, helped produce stagflation (high inflation + slow growth), and pushed policymakers to create a national energy policy—e.g., the Department of Energy (1977) and Carter’s National Energy Plan. These events are in the CED under KC-8.1.I and link directly to Topic 8.13 (see the Fiveable study guide) (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-us-history/unit-8/environment-natural-resources-1968-1980/study-guide/0t0VXJnMCn7QKI5gwV6X). For practice questions on this era, try Fiveable’s APUSH problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-us-history).

Major environmental accidents in the late 1960s–1970s (like Love Canal and the 1979 Three Mile Island partial meltdown) made pollution and toxic hazards visible and frightening to the public, which pushed lawmakers to act. High-profile incidents, plus Rachel Carson’s earlier Silent Spring and growing Earth Day activism, helped build a broad environmental movement. Congress and presidents responded by creating new laws and institutions: the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), stronger Clean Air Act (1970 amendments), the Clean Water Act, the Endangered Species Act, and later Superfund (Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act) to clean toxic sites. Oil shocks (1973, 1979) added energy-security urgency, prompting a Department of Energy (1977) and national energy planning under Carter. For APUSH, cite specific laws/episodes as evidence and connect public reaction to federal policy change (see the Topic 8.13 study guide for review) (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-us-history/unit-8/environment-natural-resources-1968-1980/study-guide/0t0VXJnMCn7QKI5gwV6X). For practice, try problems at (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-us-history).

After 1968 the U.S. cared more about the environment because several things made pollution hard to ignore and politically urgent. Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring (earlier, but its impact grew) and growing science on smog, water pollution, and species loss made the problem visible. Massive events—Cuyahoga River fires, 1969 oil spills, and later Love Canal and Three Mile Island—grabbed media attention and public fear. Grassroots energy: the first Earth Day (1970) showed mass public support. Politicians responded with sweeping laws and institutions: NEPA, EPA (1970), Clean Air Act amendments (1970), Clean Water Act, and the Endangered Species Act. The 1973 OPEC oil embargo and 1979 energy crisis added economic and national-security reasons to create a national energy policy (Department of Energy, 1977; Carter’s plan). For APUSH, you should be ready to “explain how and why” these policy changes happened (CED Learning Objective O). For a quick review, see the Topic 8.13 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-us-history/unit-8/environment-natural-resources-1968-1980/study-guide/0t0VXJnMCn7QKI5gwV6X) and hit practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-us-history).

Before 1968 the environmental movement was mostly scientific and conservation-focused: people like Rachel Carson (Silent Spring, 1962) raised awareness about pesticides and pollution, and conservation groups pushed for parks and resource management. It was often local, driven by scientists and nature lovers, and relied on moral persuasion. After 1968 it became national, political, and regulatory. High-profile events (Earth Day 1970), major laws (NEPA, EPA in 1970, Clean Air Act amendments 1970, Clean Water Act, Endangered Species Act), and disasters (Love Canal, Three Mile Island) pushed Congress to create federal programs and enforcement. The focus broadened from conservation to pollution control, public health, and energy policy (1973 OPEC embargo, 1979 energy crisis → Dept. of Energy, Carter’s plans, Superfund/CERCLA). For AP exam, be ready to link these laws and crises to changing public opinion and federal action (see Topic 8.13 study guide: https://library.fiveable.me/ap-us-history/unit-8/environment-natural-resources-1968-1980/study-guide/0t0VXJnMCn7QKI5gwV6X). For extra practice, try AP-style questions at (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-us-history).

The EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) is the federal agency created to regulate and enforce laws that reduce pollution and protect natural resources—think air and water quality, hazardous waste, and enforcing laws like the Clean Air Act (1970) and Clean Water Act. It grew out of the late-1960s environmental movement (Rachel Carson, Earth Day 1970) and Nixon’s push to consolidate fragmented programs into one strong regulator. Nixon proposed it in July 1970 and it officially began operations on December 2, 1970 (Reorganization Plan No. 3 of 1970). On the AP exam, EPA is a key factual detail for Topic 8.13 (policy responses to environmental problems) and is useful evidence in short-answer/LEQ/DBQ prompts about how the federal government responded to pollution and energy/resource crises. For the topic study guide see (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-us-history/unit-8/environment-natural-resources-1968-1980/study-guide/0t0VXJnMCn7QKI5gwV6X). For broader unit review and practice questions, check (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-us-history/unit-8) and (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-us-history).

Short answer: the 1973 oil embargo and 1979 energy crisis made fuel shortages a national security and economic emergency, which pushed environmental concerns into energy policy. Before the shocks the environmental movement won laws (NEPA, EPA, Clean Air/Water, Endangered Species) focused on pollution and conservation. The oil crises exposed U.S. dependence on foreign oil and prompted efforts to reduce consumption (fuel-efficiency standards, conservation programs), create a coordinated national energy policy (Carter’s 1977 National Energy Plan, Department of Energy in 1977), and fund alternative energy research. So environmental goals (conservation, cleaner energy) and geopolitical/economic goals (energy independence, stable prices) became linked—exam evidence you can use: 1973 embargo, 1979 crisis, DOE creation, Carter’s policies, and later Superfund (CERCLA) responses to environmental hazards. For topic review, see the APUSH Topic 8.13 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-us-history/unit-8/environment-natural-resources-1968-1980/study-guide/0t0VXJnMCn7QKI5gwV6X) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-us-history).

Between 1968–1980 the biggest environmental crises that shaped policy and the AP topic were: - 1969 Cuyahoga River fire (Ohio)—industrial pollution so bad the river actually burned; helped spark public demand for clean-water laws. - 1969 Santa Barbara oil spill (California)—massive offshore spill that fueled the modern environmental movement. - Love Canal (late 1970s; public attention peaked 1978)—toxic chemical dump under a neighborhood in New York that forced evacuations and led to Superfund-style cleanup thinking. - Three Mile Island accident (1979)—partial nuclear meltdown in Pennsylvania that shut public support for nuclear power and influenced energy policy. - 1973 OPEC oil embargo and 1979 energy crisis—not ecological disasters but major energy shocks that connected environmental policy to national energy policy (led to attempts at a national energy plan and creation of Dept. of Energy in 1977). These events helped create NEPA, the EPA, the 1970 Clean Air Act amendments, Clean Water Act, Endangered Species Act, and later CERCLA (Superfund). For review, see the Topic 8.13 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-us-history/unit-8/environment-natural-resources-1968-1980/study-guide/0t0VXJnMCn7QKI5gwV6X). For broader Unit 8 review and practice Qs, use the unit page (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-us-history/unit-8) and practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-us-history).

Start with a clear thesis that answers “how and why environmental policy changed in the 1970s” (e.g., federal response to visible pollution, accidents, and energy shocks expanded regulatory power). Briefly contextualize: rising environmental movement after Silent Spring, 1969 Cuyahoga/air & water crises, plus 1973 and 1979 oil shocks that forced energy policy. Use 4+ documents to support your line of reasoning (EPA creation, NEPA, Clean Air Act 1970 amendments, Clean Water Act, Endangered Species Act, Love Canal, Three Mile Island, Carter’s energy policies, Dept. of Energy, Superfund). Include at least one specific outside fact (e.g., Earth Day 1970 turnout; 1973 OPEC embargo) and explain POV/purpose/audience for ≥2 documents (why a congressional lawmaker vs. EPA report frames evidence differently). End by adding nuance (tension between regulation and economic/energy concerns; rollback attempts). For targeted topic review, see the Fiveable study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-us-history/unit-8/environment-natural-resources-1968-1980/study-guide/0t0VXJnMCn7QKI5gwV6X). For extra practice, use Fiveable’s APUSH practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-us-history).

Awareness rose from both evidence and events. Scientific work like Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring (1962) and visible smog, polluted rivers, and species loss made problems hard to ignore. High-profile disasters—Love Canal (toxic waste) and the Three Mile Island accident—dramatized danger and pushed media coverage. Mass mobilization (first Earth Day, 1970) turned concern into a political movement that elected officials couldn’t ignore. That pressure plus scientific findings produced major federal responses: NEPA, the EPA, 1970 Clean Air Act amendments, Clean Water Act, and the Endangered Species Act. The 1973 OPEC oil embargo and 1979 energy crisis linked energy policy to environmental thinking, prompting a national energy policy (Dept. of Energy, Carter’s plan) and later Superfund (CERCLA). Use these developments as evidence on the exam for “explain how/why” prompts (CED Topic 8.13). For a concise review, see the Topic 8.13 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-us-history/unit-8/environment-natural-resources-1968-1980/study-guide/0t0VXJnMCn7QKI5gwV6X) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-us-history).

Because pollution and resource shocks made the problem impossible to ignore. By the late 1960s scientists (Rachel Carson), media, and visible crises—smog, polluted rivers, Cuyahoga River fires, and high-profile grassroots events like Earth Day 1970—created broad public demand for federal action. Policymakers responded with major laws and new agencies: NEPA and Nixon’s EPA (1970), the Clean Air Act (1970 amendments), the Clean Water Act, and the Endangered Species Act. Later disasters (Love Canal) and energy shocks (1973 OPEC embargo, 1979 crisis) pushed Congress to link environmental policy with national energy planning (DOE, 1977) and to pass Superfund (CERCLA) in 1980. For APUSH, this fits KC-8.2.II.D: social pressure + accidents + economic/energy concerns explain why the federal government expanded regulation in 1968–1980. See the Topic 8.13 study guide for details (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-us-history/unit-8/environment-natural-resources-1968-1980/study-guide/0t0VXJnMCn7QKI5gwV6X). For unit review and practice Qs, check Unit 8 (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-us-history/unit-8) and practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-us-history).

National energy policy in the 1970s—pushed hardest by Jimmy Carter after the 1973 OPEC oil embargo and the 1979 energy crisis—focused on reducing dependence on foreign oil through conservation, price signals, and new institutions. Key moves: creation of the Department of Energy (1977), Carter’s National Energy Plan (promoting efficiency, fuel switching, synthetic fuels, and renewable research), and measures like gas rationing/price adjustments during crises. Did it work? Partially. Short-term: it didn’t prevent fuel shortages or high prices in 1979 and public frustration remained. Long-term: it sparked lasting gains—federal energy coordination (DOE), stronger efficiency standards, and expanded R&D in renewables—so it laid groundwork for later improvements but didn’t fully solve reliance on imported oil in that period. For a focused review, see the Topic 8.13 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-us-history/unit-8/environment-natural-resources-1968-1980/study-guide/0t0VXJnMCn7QKI5gwV6X) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-us-history).

Middle East conflicts—especially the 1973 OPEC oil embargo and the 1979 energy crisis tied to the Iranian Revolution—forced the U.S. to treat energy as a national security issue. Rapid fuel shortages and rising prices pushed Congress and presidents to create a national energy policy: Nixon and Ford started strategic oil reserves and conservation measures; Carter established the Department of Energy (1977) and unveiled the National Energy Plan emphasizing conservation, renewables, and reduced oil dependence. These crises also shifted public opinion and made energy/environment policy linked—fuel shortages increased support for energy efficiency and federal regulation of resources, connecting to broader environmental laws and agencies from the era (EPA, NEPA, Clean Air/Water amendments). On the AP exam, expect short-answer or LEQ prompts asking how economic and international events shaped domestic policy—use the 1973 embargo, 1979 crisis, Carter’s plan, and creation of DOE as specific evidence (see the Topic 8.13 study guide for a focused review: https://library.fiveable.me/ap-us-history/unit-8/environment-natural-resources-1968-1980/study-guide/0t0VXJnMCn7QKI5gwV6X). For practice, check Fiveable’s APUSH problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-us-history).

The late-1960s environmental movement had lasting effects: it pushed Congress and presidents to create new laws and agencies (EPA, NEPA, 1970 Clean Air Act amendments, Clean Water Act, Endangered Species Act) and a culture of federal regulation of pollution and resource use. High-profile events (Earth Day 1970, Rachel Carson’s influence, Love Canal, Three Mile Island) increased public awareness and made environmental protection a political issue. Energy shocks (1973 OPEC embargo, 1979 crisis) led to national energy planning (Dept. of Energy, Carter’s plan) and longer-term emphasis on conservation and alternative fuels. Long-term outcomes include ongoing regulatory frameworks, Superfund cleanup law (CERCLA), strengthened citizen suits and environmental litigation, growth of NGOs, and environmental policy becoming standard DBQ/LEQ/SAQ content to cite on the AP exam. For the Topic 8.13 study guide see (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-us-history/unit-8/environment-natural-resources-1968-1980/study-guide/0t0VXJnMCn7QKI5gwV6X). For unit review and practice questions visit (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-us-history/unit-8) and (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-us-history).

Short answer: the 1973 OPEC oil embargo exposed U.S. vulnerability to foreign oil and fuel shortages, so energy security became a national priority that shaped environmental policy. Before the embargo, the environmental movement (NEPA, EPA, Clean Air/Clean Water Acts, Endangered Species Act, Earth Day 1970) focused on pollution and conservation. After 1973, lawmakers paired those environmental goals with energy policies—trying to reduce oil dependence while still protecting resources. That led to efforts toward a national energy policy (Carter’s 1977 National Energy Plan), the creation of the Department of Energy (1977), and later laws like Superfund (CERCLA) that dealt with hazardous sites. For APUSH, connect KC-8.1.I (oil crises → national energy policy) with KC-8.2.II.D (environmental legislation). Use this Topic 8.13 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-us-history/unit-8/environment-natural-resources-1968-1980/study-guide/0t0VXJnMCn7QKI5gwV6X) and the Unit 8 overview (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-us-history/unit-8) to review—then practice questions at (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-us-history).

Before 1968: environmental policy was limited, reactive, and fragmented—focused more on resource use and public health than ecosystem protection. Federal laws existed but enforcement was weak; pollution was often handled by states or individual agencies. Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring (1962) and visible disasters pushed public awareness. 1968–1980 (CED focus): a big shift—major federal action created the EPA (1970), National Environmental Policy Act, stronger Clean Air Act amendments (1970), Clean Water Act, Endangered Species Act, and Earth Day (1970) signaled broad public support. Accidents (Love Canal, Three Mile Island) and oil shocks (1973 embargo, 1979 crisis) led to energy policy moves (Department of Energy 1977, Carter’s National Energy Plan) and later Superfund (CERCLA) to clean toxic sites. After 1980: enforcement and funding tightened in some areas, but the federal agenda shifted toward deregulation and market-based approaches under Reagan; environmental progress continued but with less aggressive expansion of new programs. For review, see the Topic 8.13 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-us-history/unit-8/environment-natural-resources-1968-1980/study-guide/0t0VXJnMCn7QKI5gwV6X) and Unit 8 overview (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-us-history/unit-8). For practice Qs, use Fiveable’s practice page (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-us-history). On the exam, be ready to explain causes (pollution, disasters, oil crises) and link laws/agencies to public opinion and presidential/legislative action.