AP US History

5.2 Manifest Destiny

Verified for the 2025 AP US History exam•Last Updated on June 18, 2024

Manifest Destiny served as a powerful ideology driving American territorial expansion during Period 5. This concept reflected both the ambitions and values of mid-19th century America and had profound consequences for the nation's growth, foreign relations, and internal conflicts.

The idea of Manifest Destiny captured the American imagination and became a rallying cry for politicians, settlers, and business interests alike. It combined religious fervor, nationalism, economic ambition, and racial assumptions into a potent justification for continental expansion that would reshape not only American borders but also the nation's identity.

"American Progress" by John Gast, courtesy of Wikipedia

Origins and Definition

The concept of Manifest Destiny emerged during a period of intense national pride and growing American exceptionalism. While expansionist sentiment had existed since colonial times, it was in the 1840s that this sentiment received its memorable name and became a coherent ideology driving national policy.

Term "Manifest Destiny" coined by journalist John L. O'Sullivan in 1845 during advocacy for Texas annexation
O'Sullivan wrote it was America's "manifest destiny to overspread the continent allotted by Providence"
Represented the belief that America had a divine mission to expand across North America from Atlantic to Pacific
Embodied the idea that American expansion would spread democracy, capitalism, and Christianity
Gained popularity especially among Democrats, who sought to create Jefferson's "Empire of Liberty"
Justified expansion through various means, including purchase, treaty, settlement, and military conflict
Portrayed American institutions and culture as superior to indigenous and Mexican societies

Motivations for Westward Migration

Americans moved westward for numerous and complex reasons, creating one of the largest voluntary migrations in human history. This movement transformed not only the demographics of the continent but also the American character itself, reinforcing values of individualism, opportunity, and conquest of nature.

Economic opportunities: land ownership, farming, ranching, and mining
Religious freedom: escape from persecution and establishment of new communities
Access to natural resources: fertile soil, timber, water, minerals, and precious metals
Desire to secure strategic ports and trade routes to Asia
Population pressure in eastern states and increased immigration from Europe
Adventure and romanticized visions of the frontier
Land speculation opportunities for investors and developers
Government incentives, including reduced-price or free land

Key Expansion Areas

The territorial growth of the United States during this period was remarkable in its scope and speed. In less than a generation, the nation expanded its boundaries to include vast territories with diverse climates, resources, and existing populations, creating challenges of governance and integration that would shape American politics for decades.

Texas

Attracted American settlers for cotton cultivation and cattle ranching
Initially part of Mexico, became independent in 1836 after revolution
Republic of Texas existed for nine years before annexation
Annexed by the United States in 1845, triggering tensions with Mexico
Entry as a slave state upset the delicate balance between free and slave states

Oregon Territory

Valuable for farming, timber, and access to Pacific ports
Subject to competing British and American claims for decades
Oregon Trail migration brought thousands of American settlers in 1840s
"Fifty-four Forty or Fight!" campaign during Polk's 1844 election sought territory up to Alaska
Oregon Treaty of 1846 established border at 49th parallel, avoiding war with Britain
Created Washington, Oregon, Idaho, and parts of Montana and Wyoming

California

Gold Rush of 1849 sparked massive population migration
Over 300,000 people arrived in California between 1848-1855
Rapid growth led to statehood in 1850 as a free state
Transformed American economy and demographics of the West
Created boomtowns, lawlessness, and environmental damage from mining

Utah Territory

Mormon migration under Brigham Young established settlement in 1847
Sought religious freedom and self-governance after persecution in Illinois
Created conflict with federal authorities over sovereignty and marriage practices
Mormon pioneers developed innovative irrigation systems for desert farming
Utah Territory created in 1850; statehood delayed until 1896 partly due to polygamy issue

Consequences of Expansion

The territorial gains achieved through Manifest Destiny came with profound costs and complications. As the nation's borders expanded, so too did conflicts over sovereignty, resources, cultural values, and perhaps most significantly, the institution of slavery, which would eventually tear the nation apart.

Native American Relations

Forced removal and relocation of tribes from ancestral lands
Resistance through various forms including military conflict
Negotiation of treaties that were frequently violated
Destruction of traditional lifestyles and cultural practices
Indian Appropriations Act of 1851 created the reservation system
California Native population declined from 150,000 to 30,000 between 1848-1870

Slavery Debate

New territories raised critical question: would they be free or slave?
Intensified sectional tensions between North and South
Led to various compromises that ultimately failed to resolve the issue
Contributed significantly to the path toward Civil War
Free-Soil Party formed in 1848 specifically to oppose slavery's expansion westward

International Relations

Mexican-American War (1846-1848) resulted in massive territorial acquisition
Diplomatic tensions with European powers over American continental ambitions
Increased interest in overseas markets, particularly in Asia
Treaty of Kanagawa (1854) – Commodore Perry forced Japan to open to trade
Growing assertion of Monroe Doctrine to limit European influence in hemisphere

Post-Civil War Expansion

The Civil War did not end American territorial ambitions. If anything, the reunified nation pursued expansion with renewed vigor, using new legislative tools and technologies to facilitate settlement and economic development across the continent and beyond.

Homestead Act of 1862 accelerated western settlement by offering 160 acres to settlers
Nearly 10% of all U.S. lands distributed through this program
Transcontinental Railroad completed in 1869, improving transportation and economic development
Reduced travel time from months to days and opened new markets
Purchase of Alaska from Russia in 1867 (originally called "Seward's Folly") for $7.2 million
Continued displacement of Native Americans through military campaigns and reservation policy
Sand Creek Massacre (1864) and Battle of Little Bighorn (1876) exemplified conflicts
Emerging interest in Pacific territories including Hawaii
Pacific Railway Acts subsidized railroad construction with massive land grants

Manifest Destiny transformed the United States from a coastal republic to a continental power, but this expansion came at tremendous cost to Native Americans and Mexicans who already inhabited these lands. The ideology also planted seeds for later American imperialism and created internal conflicts over slavery that would ultimately tear the nation apart during the Civil War.

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Key Terms to Review (28)

"54° 40' or fight!": '54° 40' or fight!' was a slogan used during the 1844 presidential campaign, advocating for the U.S. to claim the entire Oregon Territory up to latitude 54° 40'. This phrase reflects the heightened tensions between the United States and Great Britain over territorial disputes in the Pacific Northwest, illustrating the spirit of expansionism that characterized the era of Manifest Destiny. The phrase symbolized the desire for U.S. expansion and showcased the willingness to confront foreign powers to achieve territorial claims.

Alaska & Hawaii Expansion: The Alaska and Hawaii Expansion refers to the U.S. acquisition of Alaska in 1867 and Hawaii in 1898, which were significant events in the context of America's pursuit of Manifest Destiny. These expansions reflect the broader ambition to extend U.S. territory across the continent and into the Pacific, driven by economic interests, strategic military considerations, and the belief in American exceptionalism.

Annexation of Texas: The Annexation of Texas refers to the incorporation of the Republic of Texas into the United States as its 28th state in 1845. This event was a significant milestone in the expansion of U.S. territory and directly tied to the ideologies of expansionism and nationalism, contributing to rising tensions between the U.S. and Mexico, and setting the stage for subsequent conflicts.

American Foreign Policy: American Foreign Policy refers to the strategies and decisions made by the United States government regarding its interactions with other countries. This policy has evolved over time, influenced by national interests, global events, and domestic politics, reflecting the changing role of the U.S. in international affairs.

California Gold Rush (1849): The California Gold Rush was a massive influx of people to California in 1849, triggered by the discovery of gold at Sutter's Mill. This event not only transformed California from a sparsely populated territory into a bustling state but also embodied the spirit of Manifest Destiny, as thousands of prospectors sought fortune and opportunity in the West, reflecting the broader American belief in the country's expansion across the continent.

Cattle Ranching: Cattle ranching is the practice of raising cattle for beef production, which became a significant part of the American economy in the 19th century. This practice was driven by the demand for beef in growing urban areas and the expansion of the railroads, which facilitated the transportation of cattle across long distances. Cattle ranching was integral to the development of the American West and represented both an economic opportunity and a cultural symbol of frontier life.

Commodore Matthew Perry: Commodore Matthew Perry was a United States Navy officer who played a crucial role in opening Japan to the Western world in the mid-19th century. His famous expedition to Japan in 1853-1854 marked a significant moment in U.S. foreign policy, reflecting the broader theme of expansionism and Manifest Destiny, as well as laying the groundwork for future international relations in the Asia-Pacific region.

Deseret (Utah) for Mormons: Deseret was a proposed state in the mid-19th century that was primarily settled by members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, commonly known as Mormons. The term symbolizes the Mormons' aspirations for self-governance and religious freedom in a region they considered to be their promised land during the era of Manifest Destiny.

Economic Development in the West: Economic Development in the West refers to the growth and expansion of various economic activities in the western United States during the 19th century, largely driven by Manifest Destiny. This development included agriculture, mining, railroads, and trade, leading to a significant transformation of the landscape and economy. The pursuit of wealth and resources attracted settlers, businesses, and immigrants, reshaping both local economies and national economic trends.

Economic Opportunities: Economic opportunities refer to the chances for individuals or groups to improve their financial situation through various means such as employment, investment, and resource utilization. During periods of expansion and migration, like those driven by a sense of destiny or westward movement, these opportunities became central to the motivations and experiences of many people seeking a better life.

Edo Bay: Edo Bay, located in modern-day Tokyo, Japan, was a crucial site during the period of Japanese isolation (Edo period) from the early 17th century to the mid-19th century. Its significance lies in its role as a vital trading hub and point of contact between Japan and the outside world, especially in the context of American expansion and Manifest Destiny.

Empire of Liberty: The Empire of Liberty is a concept that suggests the United States has a duty to spread democracy and freedom across the continent and beyond, rooted in the belief that America is a beacon of liberty. This idea emerged prominently during the 19th century, particularly linked to the notion of Manifest Destiny, which fueled westward expansion and justified the annexation of territories. It reflects the belief that American values should be shared with others, often leading to complex interactions with indigenous peoples and foreign nations.

Homestead Act of 1862: The Homestead Act of 1862 was a significant piece of legislation that granted 160 acres of public land to settlers for a small fee, provided they improved the land by building a dwelling and cultivating crops. This act was a crucial element in promoting westward expansion and played a vital role in the concept of Manifest Destiny, encouraging many to seek new opportunities in the American frontier.

James K. Polk: James K. Polk was the 11th President of the United States, serving from 1845 to 1849. He is best known for his strong advocacy of Manifest Destiny, which was the belief that American expansion across the continent was both justified and inevitable. Polk's presidency significantly shaped the territorial boundaries of the United States through territorial acquisitions and military conflicts.

John L. O'Sullivan: John L. O'Sullivan was a journalist and editor in the mid-19th century, best known for coining the term 'Manifest Destiny' in 1845. His writings promoted the idea that the United States was destined to expand across the North American continent, embodying the belief that this expansion was not only beneficial but divinely ordained.

Manifest Destiny: Manifest Destiny is the 19th-century belief that it was the divine right and destiny of the United States to expand its territory across the North American continent. This idea not only justified westward expansion but also influenced the nation's political, social, and cultural development during this period.

Natural and Mineral Resources: Natural and mineral resources refer to the raw materials found in the environment that are used for economic gain, including metals, minerals, forests, and water sources. In the context of expansionist policies, these resources fueled the desire for territorial acquisition and economic growth, which was central to the ideology of Manifest Destiny. The belief that Americans were destined to expand across the continent was driven by the pursuit of these resources, as they were seen as essential for progress and prosperity.

Oregon Trail: The Oregon Trail was a historic overland route used by thousands of American pioneers during the mid-1800s to migrate westward to the Oregon Territory. This 2,170-mile path was a key component of the larger movement toward Manifest Destiny, reflecting the belief that the United States was destined to expand across North America. The trail facilitated the westward expansion by enabling settlers to traverse the difficult terrain and settle in new lands, leading to significant social and cultural developments as diverse groups interacted and established communities along the way.

Plantation Owners: Plantation owners were wealthy landowners who operated large agricultural estates, primarily in the southern United States, where crops like cotton, tobacco, and sugar were grown using enslaved labor. Their economic power and social status significantly influenced the social and political landscape of the region, especially during the early 19th century.

Religious Refuge: Religious refuge refers to the practice of seeking safety and protection from persecution or oppression based on religious beliefs. This concept became significant during the 19th century as various groups migrated to new territories in search of a place where they could freely practice their faith without fear. The movement of these groups often tied into broader themes of expansion and settlement, especially as people pushed westward across North America under the belief of Manifest Destiny.

Resistance from Native Americans: Resistance from Native Americans refers to the various forms of opposition and struggle exhibited by Indigenous peoples against European settlers and their expansionist policies, particularly during the era of Manifest Destiny. This resistance manifested through military confrontations, diplomatic negotiations, and cultural preservation efforts as Native Americans sought to defend their land, sovereignty, and way of life against encroachment by settlers who believed in their right to expand westward.

Spread of Slavery to Western Territories: The Spread of Slavery to Western Territories refers to the expansion of the institution of slavery into newly acquired and organized territories in the United States during the 19th century. This process was deeply intertwined with the idea of Manifest Destiny, as many Americans believed it was their divine right to expand across the continent, bringing both land and their way of life, which included slavery, to these new areas.

Texas Cotton Cultivation: Texas Cotton Cultivation refers to the agricultural practice of growing cotton in Texas, which became a dominant crop in the 19th century and played a significant role in the state's economy and social structure. As the demand for cotton grew, especially in the context of the industrial revolution and textile manufacturing, Texas emerged as a key player in the cotton market, aligning closely with the idea of expansion known as Manifest Destiny. This cultivation not only shaped the agricultural landscape but also influenced migration patterns and settlement in the region.

Trade with Asia: Trade with Asia refers to the exchange of goods, ideas, and culture between Asian countries and other regions, particularly during the 19th century when American expansionism and economic interests in the Pacific grew. This trade became a significant factor in shaping the United States' foreign policy and domestic economy, particularly in the context of Manifest Destiny, as Americans sought to establish commercial ties with Asian markets and assert their influence across the Pacific.

Treaty of Kanagawa: The Treaty of Kanagawa was an 1854 agreement between the United States and Japan that marked the beginning of Japan's opening to the West after over two centuries of isolation. This treaty established trade relations and allowed for American ships to access Japanese ports, which was a significant step in the context of expanding American influence and Manifest Destiny across the Pacific.

U.S. Overseas Expansion: U.S. Overseas Expansion refers to the period during the late 19th and early 20th centuries when the United States sought to extend its influence and control beyond its continental borders. This movement was driven by various factors, including economic interests, military strategy, and a belief in American exceptionalism, which justified the spread of U.S. ideals and governance. The idea of Manifest Destiny, which initially focused on westward expansion across North America, evolved to encompass a broader vision of American expansionism overseas.

Western Transportation Improvements: Western Transportation Improvements refer to the various advancements in infrastructure that facilitated travel and trade across the western United States during the 19th century. These improvements, including roads, canals, and railroads, were crucial in supporting the movement of people and goods, thereby enhancing economic development and contributing to the notion of Manifest Destiny, where Americans believed it was their destiny to expand westward across the continent.

Yeoman Farmers: Yeoman farmers were small-scale farmers who owned their land and worked it primarily with the help of their families. These independent landowners played a significant role in shaping agricultural practices and social structures, especially in the South during the early Republic, and were seen as the backbone of American democracy and economy. They also influenced the idea of Manifest Destiny by embodying the spirit of westward expansion and self-sufficiency.

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