The First Party System was a political system in the United States that emerged in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. It was characterized by the development of two political parties, the Federalist Party and the Democratic-Republican Party, which emerged as the dominant political forces in the country.
| Federalists | Democratic-Republicans |
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| The Federalist Party, which was led by John Adams and Alexander Hamilton, favored a strong federal government and a strong central bank. They supported a strong military and a pro-business economic policy. |
The Democratic-Republican Party, which was led by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, favored a more decentralized government with greater powers for the states. They supported a strong agrarian economy and a more limited federal government.
The First Party System was marked by a series of political conflicts and debates between the Federalist Party and the Democratic-Republican Party, including the debate over the Constitution, the formation of the national bank, and the issue of foreign policy.
Presidency of Jefferson
The Election of 1800 involved personal attacks by both parties and Thomas Jefferson became the president.
Federalists lost power in what is called the Revolution of 1800, because they made too many unpopular decisions while in power. Some examples include the Jay Treaty and Alien and Sedition Acts.
- The Jay Treaty was a treaty signed between the United States and Great Britain in 1794, which aimed to settle outstanding issues from the American Revolution and to establish a framework for peaceful trade and relations between the two countries. The treaty was controversial, as it was seen by some as too favorable to Great Britain and not protective enough of American interests.
- The Alien and Sedition Acts were a series of laws passed by the Federalist-controlled Congress in 1798, which aimed to crack down on anti-government sentiment and to limit the influence of immigrants in the United States. The Acts included measures to increase the residency requirement for citizenship, to give the president greater power to deport immigrants, and to make it a crime to criticize the government or its officials.
This was called the Revolution of 1800 because it was a peaceful transition of power from one party to another, something that was rare throughout the world at the time.
The fall of the Federalists led to a period of time called the Era of Good Feelings, because there was only one political party, the Democratic-Republicans, and little debate. Yet, this phrase is debatable as sectionalism increased during this period due to economic, social, and political differences between the North and South and eventually led to the Second Party System, which would divide the country further. These differences would fuel the development of an abolitionist movement in the industrial North that sought to limit the expansion of slavery, which the South relied on for its agricultural economy.
🎥 Watch: AP US History - The Era of Good Feelings
The presidency of Jefferson brought new territories through the Louisiana Purchase in 1803. Since Napoleon had failed to take back Haiti, Louisiana became useless. Thus, Napoleon offered 828,000 square miles for about $15 million, or about 3 cents per acre.
Jefferson quickly purchased this region of land, which ranged from the Mississippi River to the Rocky Mountains, although he was worried about the constitutionality of his decision. Jefferson saw the acquisition as a way to fulfill his vision of an agrarian republic based on small farmers. He believed that the expansion of agriculture was essential for the growth and prosperity of the country, and he saw the Louisiana Purchase as an opportunity to create new land for farmers to cultivate.
The Louisiana Purchase more than doubled the size of the United States and opened up new opportunities for expansion and development. The Louisiana Purchase was an important event in the history of the United States, as it marked the country's first major expansion beyond the original 13 colonies and established the U.S. as a major player on the world stage. It also had significant economic and cultural impacts, as it opened up new opportunities for trade, commerce, and settlement, and it helped to shape the cultural and political landscape of the United States.
Other key events of Jefferson's presidency include:
- The creation of the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office: In 1802, Jefferson established the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office to protect intellectual property and to encourage innovation and technological advancement.
- The Lewis and Clark expedition: In 1803, Jefferson commissioned the Lewis and Clark expedition, which explored the newly acquired Louisiana Territory and established a route to the Pacific Ocean. The expedition helped to map and document the country's western territories and laid the foundation for further westward expansion.
- The abolition of the international slave trade: In 1808, Jefferson signed a law that banned the international slave trade, making it illegal to import or export slaves to or from the United States. The law was a significant step towards the eventual abolition of slavery in the United States.
- The Embargo Act: In 1807, Jefferson signed the Embargo Act, which prohibited American ships from sailing to foreign ports in an effort to protect American interests and to avoid getting drawn into the Napoleonic Wars between Britain and France. The Act was unpopular and had negative economic consequences, and it was eventually replaced by the Non-Intercourse Act in 1809.
- The abolition of the Federalist-controlled national bank: In 1811, Jefferson vetoed a bill to renew the charter of the national bank, which was controlled by the Federalist Party. The veto helped to weaken the power of the Federalist Party and contributed to the decline of the First Party System.
Marshall Supreme Court Cases
John Marshall led the Supreme Court for 34 years. His leadership increased the power of the federal government while decreasing the power of state governments.
One well-known case, Marbury v. Madison, started due to Adams, the president before Jefferson, appointing midnight judges right before the end of his term. The next day, President Jefferson repealed and refused to give some commissions that haven’t been sent yet. One appointee (William Marbury) sued to get his, but the Supreme Court declared that while it was illegal not to deliver the commission, it would not be handed over through force.
This case established the practice of judicial review, where the Supreme Court could judge actions of other branches of the government and deem them constitutional or unconstitutional. This had been the first time an act of the president was ruled unconstitutional.
Here are a few notable cases from the Marshall Court:
- Marbury v. Madison (1803): In this landmark case, the Supreme Court established the principle of judicial review, which gives the Court the power to declare a law or government action unconstitutional.
- McCulloch v. Maryland (1819): In this case, the Court upheld the power of Congress to create a national bank, rejecting the argument that it exceeded the powers granted to Congress by the Constitution. The decision established the principle of implied powers, which allows Congress to pass laws that are necessary and proper to carry out its constitutional powers.
- Dartmouth College v. Woodward (1819): In this case, the Court ruled that a state could not alter the terms of a private contract without violating the Constitution's protection of private property rights. The decision established the principle of contract law and the protection of private property rights under the Constitution.
- Cohens v. Virginia (1821): In this case, the Court ruled that the Supreme Court had the authority to review and overturn state court decisions that were in conflict with federal law. The decision established the principle of federal supremacy and the power of the federal courts to interpret and enforce the Constitution.
- Gibbons v. Ogden (1824): In this case, the Court ruled that the federal government had the exclusive power to regulate interstate commerce, rejecting the claim that states had the power to regulate commerce within their borders. The decision established the principle of federal supremacy and the power of the federal government to regulate interstate commerce.
- Worcester v. Georgia (1832): In this case, the Court ruled that Georgia's laws regulating the presence of Native Americans within the state were unconstitutional and violated the rights of the Cherokee Nation. The decision established the principle of tribal sovereignty and the right of Native American tribes to be treated as sovereign nations with the right to self-governance. These cases and others helped to establish the Supreme Court as an independent and influential branch of government, and they continue to be important and widely cited in legal decisions today.
🎥 Watch: AP US History - Rise of Political Parties
Frequently Asked Questions
What were the first political parties in America and why did they form?
The first American parties were the Federalists (led by Alexander Hamilton) and the Democratic-Republicans (led by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison). They formed in the 1790s out of disagreements about how powerful the national government should be and how the new nation should develop. Federalists favored a stronger federal government, a national bank, support for manufacturing, and closer ties with Britain. Democratic-Republicans pushed for limited federal power, stronger states’ rights, an agrarian-based economy, and sympathy for revolutionary France. Specific events sped the split: Hamilton’s financial plan (bank, debt assumption), the Jay Treaty and the XYZ Affair (pushed Federalists toward firmness with Britain/France), and the Alien and Sedition Acts (which Democratic-Republicans used to argue for states’ rights and civil liberties). These debates map directly to AP Topic 4.2 (tariff, federal power, foreign relations)—see the Topic 4.2 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-us-history/unit-4/rise-political-parties-era-jefferson/study-guide/jBptoMVxCR4JxRknAlm7) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-us-history) for Q-bank practice tied to the CED.
Why did Federalists and Democratic-Republicans disagree so much about everything?
They disagreed because they had totally different visions of what the new nation should be. Federalists (Hamilton) wanted a strong central government, a commercial economy with tariffs and a national bank, and closer ties to Britain; Democratic-Republicans (Jefferson) favored limited federal power, agrarianism, states’ rights, and sympathy for France. Those differences came from competing constitutional interpretations (loose vs. strict construction), regional bases (northern merchants vs. southern and western farmers), and reactions to events like the XYZ Affair, Alien & Sedition Acts, the Louisiana Purchase, and the Embargo Act. Court decisions (Marbury v. Madison) and debates over tariffs and the bank made those lines sharper. For the AP exam, be ready to explain causes/effects of these policy fights and use specific evidence (laws, court cases, elections) to support claims. Review Topic 4.2 on Fiveable (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-us-history/unit-4/rise-political-parties-era-jefferson/study-guide/jBptoMVxCR4JxRknAlm7) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-us-history).
What's the difference between Hamilton's and Jefferson's views on government power?
Short answer: Hamilton wanted a strong, energetic national government; Jefferson wanted limited federal power and more authority for the states. Hamilton (Federalist): favored broad/“implied” constitutional powers to build institutions that strengthened the national government—creation of a national bank, federal assumption of state debts, protective tariffs, and support for commerce and industry. He believed a propertied, centralized republic and a powerful federal fiscal system would ensure stability. Jefferson (Democratic-Republican): argued for strict construction of the Constitution, greater states’ rights, low tariffs, and an agrarian republic of independent farmers. He opposed the national bank as unconstitutional and feared concentrated federal power. (That said, Jefferson showed pragmatic flexibility with the Louisiana Purchase.) These opposing views shaped early party politics and AP exam themes (Federalists vs. Democratic-Republicans, states’ rights, tariff debates, Alien & Sedition Acts). For a quick review, see the Topic 4.2 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-us-history/unit-4/rise-political-parties-era-jefferson/study-guide/jBptoMVxCR4JxRknAlm7) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-us-history).
How did the Louisiana Purchase actually happen and why was it controversial?
In 1803 the U.S. bought the Louisiana Territory from France for $15 million after Napoleon offered to sell the whole colony. Jefferson sent diplomats to buy New Orleans; when France unexpectedly offered the entire territory, Jefferson accepted, negotiatied a treaty, and the Senate ratified it—doubling U.S. land and prompting the Lewis and Clark expedition (KC-4.3.I.A.i). It was controversial because Jefferson was a strict-constructionist who believed the Constitution only allowed powers expressly given to the federal government. Buying territory by treaty stretched that view, so critics (mainly Federalists) argued it was unconstitutional and worried it would shift political power westward toward agrarian Democratic-Republicans. Others feared stirring conflict with Native nations and European powers. The Purchase is a classic AP topic for SAQs/LEQs about policy debates, federal power, and westward expansion (see the Topic 4.2 study guide: https://library.fiveable.me/ap-us-history/unit-4/rise-political-parties-era-jefferson/study-guide/jBptoMVxCR4JxRknAlm7). For extra practice, try questions at https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-us-history.
Can someone explain Marbury v. Madison in simple terms because I'm so confused?
Marbury v. Madison (1803) is the case that made the Supreme Court the referee of the Constitution. Here’s the simple version: at the end of John Adams’s presidency he made “midnight” judicial appointments; William Marbury’s commission wasn’t delivered under Jefferson. Marbury sued asking the Supreme Court to order Secretary of State James Madison to deliver it. Chief Justice John Marshall found three things: Marbury had a right to the job; a legal remedy existed; but the Court could not force Madison because the law Marbury relied on (a section of the Judiciary Act of 1789) conflicted with the Constitution. Marshall declared that when a federal law conflicts with the Constitution, the Constitution wins—and the Court can strike down that law. That decision established judicial review, giving the judiciary the power to interpret the Constitution and check Congress and the president (see Topic 4.2 study guide: https://library.fiveable.me/ap-us-history/unit-4/rise-political-parties-era-jefferson/study-guide/jBptoMVxCR4JxRknAlm7). For practice questions on this and other CED topics, try Fiveable’s practice bank (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-us-history).
What caused all the debates about tariffs in the early 1800s?
Mostly it was regional economic interests and the politics those interests produced. Northern manufacturers wanted protective tariffs to raise prices on cheap British goods so U.S. industries could grow; Southern planters (and Western farmers who bought imported goods) wanted low tariffs so they could buy cheaply and export cotton without foreign retaliation. That split lined up with emerging party differences—Federalists and later National Republicans/Whigs favored stronger federal economic policy (including tariffs); Democratic-Republicans stressed limited federal power and states’ rights, so they resisted high tariffs. Tariffs also touched questions about federal vs. state authority and sectional power in Congress, so debates weren’t just economic but constitutional and political (CED Topic 4.2: tariff, powers of the federal government, states’ rights). For more on how this fits the AP rubric (explain causes/effects), see the Topic 4.2 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-us-history/unit-4/rise-political-parties-era-jefferson/study-guide/jBptoMVxCR4JxRknAlm7). Practice related questions at (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-us-history).
I don't understand why the Supreme Court became so powerful - what cases made this happen?
The Supreme Court grew powerful mainly because Chief Justice John Marshall wrote decisions that gave the Court the final say on the Constitution and on federal vs. state power. The key cases: - Marbury v. Madison (1803)—established judicial review: the Court can declare federal laws unconstitutional, making the judiciary a coequal branch (keyword: judicial review). - McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)—affirmed implied powers and federal supremacy, saying states can’t tax federal institutions (supports KC-4.1.I.B). - Gibbons v. Ogden (1824)—broadened Congress’s commerce power, limiting state control over interstate commerce. These decisions turned the Court into the interpreter of the Constitution and strengthened national authority—exactly what the CED highlights for Topic 4.2. For more on this topic and how it shows up on the exam, check the Topic 4.2 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-us-history/unit-4/rise-political-parties-era-jefferson/study-guide/jBptoMVxCR4JxRknAlm7) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-us-history).
How do I write a DBQ essay about political party conflicts in Jefferson's era?
Start with a tight thesis that answers the prompt and sets a line of reasoning (e.g., conflicts over federal power, foreign policy, and economic policy). Contextualize: note the Federalist–Democratic-Republican split after the 1790s, Alien & Sedition Acts, and Jefferson’s 1800 victory/Louisiana Purchase. Use at least four documents to support separate parts of your argument (tariff/powers of federal government, judicial review/Marbury v. Madison, foreign policy/Embargo Act & Napoleonic Wars, Louisiana Purchase/expansion). Describe content from each doc rather than just quoting. Bring in one specific extra fact (e.g., Marbury v. Madison establishing judicial review or the Embargo Act of 1807’s economic effects). For two documents, explain POV/purpose/audience (how a Federalist newspaper differs from Jefferson’s private letters). End with a complexity point: show mixed effects (Jefferson reduced party tensions but expanded federal power via purchase and the courts). Use the Topic 4.2 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-us-history/unit-4/rise-political-parties-era-jefferson/study-guide/jBptoMVxCR4JxRknAlm7) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-us-history) to drill this approach.
What were the main effects of the Louisiana Purchase on American expansion?
The Louisiana Purchase (1803) had big, concrete effects on American expansion. It doubled U.S. territory, removed French power from the interior, and secured control of the Mississippi River and New Orleans—vital for western farmers’ trade. It sparked federal-sponsored exploration (Lewis and Clark), encouraging settlement and claims across the trans-Mississippi West. Politically, it tested constitutional limits (Jefferson’s strict-construction worries) and strengthened the national government’s role in land acquisition. It also intensified debates over slavery’s expansion into new territories, and led to more displacement of Native peoples as settlers moved west. For APUSH, tie these effects to KC-4.3.I.A (exploration/diplomacy), Jeffersonian politics, and sectional tensions—use this on short-answer or essay prompts about causes/effects of expansion. Review Topic 4.2 on Fiveable’s study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-us-history/unit-4/rise-political-parties-era-jefferson/study-guide/jBptoMVxCR4JxRknAlm7) and practice with problems at (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-us-history).
Why did Jefferson buy Louisiana even though he believed in strict interpretation of the Constitution?
Jefferson bought the Louisiana Territory (1803) even though he favored a strict construction of the Constitution because protecting national interests mattered more than sticking to a narrow legalism. The purchase doubled U.S. land, secured control of the Mississippi River and New Orleans (vital for western farmers), and reduced the threat of a European power in North America—big strategic and economic gains that fit Democratic-Republican goals. Constitutionally, Jefferson worried it wasn’t explicitly authorized, but he used the president’s treaty-making power to justify the deal, framing it as a constitutional exercise of authority. Practically, the opportunity (Napoleon’s offer and the chance to avoid war) plus the long-term benefits to agrarian expansion outweighed his strict-construction instincts. This tension—principle vs. practical national interest—is a classic APUSH example you can use on short-answer or LEQ prompts about early federal power and expansion (see the Topic 4.2 study guide: https://library.fiveable.me/ap-us-history/unit-4/rise-political-parties-era-jefferson/study-guide/jBptoMVxCR4JxRknAlm7). For more review and practice, check the Unit 4 overview (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-us-history/unit-4) and the practice question bank (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-us-history).
What's the connection between the Alien and Sedition Acts and the rise of political parties?
The Alien and Sedition Acts (1798) sharpened the divide between Federalists and Democratic-Republicans and helped solidify the two-party system. Federalists, worried by the XYZ Affair and possible war with France, passed these laws to restrict immigration and criminalize criticizing the federal government. Democratic-Republicans (Jefferson/Madison) saw them as an attack on free speech and states’ rights. That conflict produced the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions arguing for constitutional limits and nullification—a clear partisan response. Politically, the Acts mobilized opposition, helped Jefferson’s coalition grow, and made party identity central to debates about federal power, civil liberties, and foreign policy. For AP exam use: tie this to LO B (causes/effects of policy debates) and KC-4.1 (party debates over federal power & foreign relations). Review Topic 4.2 on Fiveable for examples and practice (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-us-history/unit-4/rise-political-parties-era-jefferson/study-guide/jBptoMVxCR4JxRknAlm7) and try practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-us-history).
How did foreign relations with Britain and France affect domestic politics in the early republic?
Foreign relations with Britain and France split the new republic and helped create party politics. Federalists (pro-British) favored a strong central government and closer commercial ties; Democratic-Republicans (pro-French) defended states' rights and sympathy for the French Revolution. Crises like the XYZ Affair pushed Americans toward the Federalists and led to the Alien and Sedition Acts; British and French interference with U.S. shipping during the Napoleonic Wars produced Jefferson’s Embargo Act of 1807, which aimed to avoid war but hurt merchants and strengthened partisan opposition. Jefferson’s Louisiana Purchase showed diplomacy could expand U.S. power while provoking constitutional debates (Federalists vs. Democratic-Republicans). These episodes tie directly to Topic 4.2 CED keywords (Embargo Act, XYZ Affair, Alien and Sedition Acts, Louisiana Purchase) and show how foreign policy shaped votes, legislation, and judicial issues you’ll be asked about on SAQs/LEQs and multiple-choice. For the Topic 4.2 study guide, see (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-us-history/unit-4/rise-political-parties-era-jefferson/study-guide/jBptoMVxCR4JxRknAlm7). Want practice questions? Try (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-us-history).
What was Jefferson's presidency actually like compared to what he promised during the election?
Jefferson ran as a small-government Republican: cut federal spending, shrink the army, repeal the Alien & Sedition Acts, undo Federalist overreach, and protect agrarian, pro-free-trade interests. In office he largely kept those promises—reduced debt, cut taxes, cut the military, and pardoned prisoners—but he also made big pragmatic departures. Most famously he approved the Louisiana Purchase (1803), doubling the U.S. despite unclear constitutional authority; he kept much of Hamilton’s fiscal system; and he accepted John Marshall’s Court (Marbury v. Madison) even as it strengthened judicial review. His foreign policy pledge of neutrality backfired: the Embargo Act of 1807 tried to avoid war with Britain/France but hurt American merchants and was unpopular. For AP exam use: these continuities vs. contradictions are great for LEQs/SAQs on policy debates and change/continuity (CED Topic 4.2, Learning Objective B). Review the Topic 4.2 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-us-history/unit-4/rise-political-parties-era-jefferson/study-guide/jBptoMVxCR4JxRknAlm7) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-us-history).
Why were Federalists against the War of 1812 and how did this hurt their party?
Federalists opposed the War of 1812 mainly because it threatened New England’s economy and reflected Democratic-Republican foreign policy they distrusted. Federalists were commercial, pro-British (relatively), and relied on trade that suffered from Jefferson’s Embargo Act (1807) and wartime restrictions. They feared the war’s shipping losses, higher tariffs, and weakened ties with Britain would hurt merchants and their political power. Their opposition turned political liability: by 1814–15 Federalists met at the Hartford Convention to consider constitutional amendments and even discuss secession—news that made them look unpatriotic as the war ended favorably (Treaty of Ghent) and nationalism surged. The party quickly lost credibility and collapsed, transforming the political landscape in favor of Democratic-Republicans. For AP review, this fits CED Topic 4.2 (causes/effects of policy debates); see the Topic 4.2 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-us-history/unit-4/rise-political-parties-era-jefferson/study-guide/jBptoMVxCR4JxRknAlm7) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-us-history).