Emotions are complex psychological processes influenced by internal and external factors. Theories explore the interplay between physiological and cognitive experiences, while the broaden-and-build theory suggests positive and negative emotions affect awareness and thinking differently.
Social influences shape our emotional experiences. While some emotions may be universal across cultures, display rules and elicitors for emotional expression can vary. Cultural norms, gender roles, age, and socioeconomic status all play a role in how emotions are expressed and interpreted.
Theories of Emotion
Emotion, or affect, is a psychological process that differs from reasoning or knowledge. It involves both internal (such as thoughts and physiological responses) and external (such as social interactions or environmental events) factors that influence how a person feels.
In the early 20th century, psychologists developed different theories about how emotions work, particularly focusing on the relationship between the body's physical reactions and a person's thoughts. These theories generally fall into three main categories:
- Sequential Theories – Some theories suggest that emotions happen in steps—first, the body reacts (such as an increased heart rate), and then the brain interprets that reaction as an emotion.
- Simultaneous Theories – Other theories propose that physical reactions and emotional experiences happen at the same time rather than one causing the other.
- Cognitive Labeling Theories – Another perspective argues that for an emotion to be fully experienced, the brain must label it. In other words, a person needs to consciously identify what they are feeling.
One specific idea related to these theories is the facial-feedback hypothesis. This suggests that a person’s facial expressions can influence their emotions. For example, smiling might make a person feel happier, while frowning could make them feel sadder. This supports theories that claim physical responses (like facial expressions) come first and influence emotional experiences. However, research on this idea has shown mixed results, meaning it’s still debated among psychologists.
🚫 Exclusion Note: Specific names of theories of emotion are outside the scope of the AP Psychology Exam.
Broaden-and-Build Theory
Both positive and negative emotions serve essential functions in human experience and survival. Emotions influence how people think and behave.
Positive emotions (like joy or curiosity) help broaden a person’s awareness and encourage exploration, leading to long-term personal growth. They can create:
- Enhanced mental and physical health
- Greater creativity and problem-solving capacity
- Stronger social bonds and the ability to build supportive relationships
Negative emotions (like fear or anger) tend to do the opposite, narrowing a person’s focus on immediate threats or problems. This can be useful in dangerous situations but may also limit long-term growth. They can lead to:
- Heightened stress responses
- More limited cognitive processing and rigid thinking
- Potential strain on relationships due to reduced social openness
This contrast shows how positive emotions help people expand their thinking and develop valuable resources over time, while negative emotions prioritize short-term survival needs.
Social influences on emotions
Research suggests that some basic emotions may be universal across human cultures. Studies have examined whether people from different backgrounds recognize and express emotions in similar ways.
Key Findings:
- Six commonly identified universal emotions – anger 😡, disgust 🤮, sadness 😞, happiness 😃, surprise 😲, and fear 😨
- Some research supports the idea that these emotions are recognized across cultures, while other studies show mixed evidence
- Emotional expressions may have an evolutionary basis, helping humans adapt and survive
These universal emotions likely developed to:
- Facilitate survival – Fear helps people react to danger, while disgust helps avoid harmful substances
- Enable social cooperation – Emotions help people communicate their feelings and intentions to others
- Support group cohesion – Shared emotional experiences strengthen relationships and group bonds
Even though these emotions may be biologically rooted, cultural factors can still shape how people express and interpret them. Some cultures encourage open emotional expression, while others promote emotional restraint, leading to variations in how emotions appear across different societies.
Cultural Differences in Emotional Expression
Although some emotions may be universal, the way they are expressed and triggered can vary across cultures. This is influenced by display rules and elicitors of emotion.
Social norms that regulate how emotions should be expressed in different situations. They can vary based on:
- Culture – Some cultures encourage open emotional expression, while others promote emotional restraint.
- Gender – Certain emotions may be considered more acceptable for one gender than another (e.g., men may be discouraged from showing sadness in some cultures).
- Age – Children and adults may have different expectations for expressing emotions.
- Socioeconomic Class – Emotional expression can be influenced by social status, with some groups encouraged to show more or less emotion in public.
These are the events or situations that trigger emotional responses, which can also differ across cultures.
- What makes one person feel pride, shame, or anger may depend on cultural values and norms.
- Some cultures may place a strong emphasis on group harmony, meaning emotions like anger might be discouraged in social settings.
- Other cultures may value individual expression, making it more acceptable to display emotions openly.
Frequently Asked Questions
What is emotion and how is it different from just thinking or reasoning?
Emotion (or affect) is a complex psychological process that involves physiological arousal (body changes), cognitive appraisal (how you interpret the situation), and expressive behaviors (like facial expressions). It’s different from thinking or reasoning because emotions are motivated, often automatic responses that reflect internal and external factors—whereas reasoning is deliberate, logical processing. The CED highlights theories that disagree about whether arousal or appraisal comes first (and some say you need a cognitive label to have the emotion). The facial-feedback idea even suggests your expressions can shape how you feel. Positive emotions broaden attention and build resources (broaden-and-build), while negative ones narrow focus. For AP exam wording, use terms like physiological arousal, cognitive appraisal, emotion regulation, and affect. If you want quick CED-aligned review, check the Topic 4.7 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-psych-new/unit-5/7-emotion/study-guide/Szn8FZvfygLjPFSb) and try practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-psych-new).
Why do some theories say we feel emotions physically first and then think about them while others say it happens at the same time?
Short answer: theories disagree because they focus on different roles for bodily arousal versus thought. Some (like James–Lange–style ideas) say you notice physiological changes first (racing heart, smiling), then interpret them as an emotion—so physiology precedes cognition. Others (like Cannon–Bard) say the brain triggers both the bodily response and the feeling at the same time. A third view (Schachter–Singer / two-factor) adds that you need both arousal and a cognitive label—you feel aroused, then you use context to name the emotion. The facial-feedback hypothesis also supports “physiology before thought” by showing facial expressions can influence how you feel, though results are mixed (CED 4.7.A.1; keywords: physiological arousal, cognitive appraisal, facial-feedback hypothesis). On the exam, be ready to explain how each view applies to behavior/mental processes. For a quick review, see the Topic 4.7 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-psych-new/unit-5/7-emotion/study-guide/Szn8FZvfygLjPFSb) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-psych-new).
Can someone explain the facial-feedback hypothesis in simple terms?
The facial-feedback hypothesis says your facial expressions can actually change how you feel. In simple terms: making a face (smiling, frowning) sends signals from your facial muscles to your brain, and those signals can boost or reduce the emotion you experience. This idea supports theories that the physiological part of emotion can come before the cognitive label—so your body’s expression can influence the feeling itself. Research has mixed results: some studies show small effects (smiling can make you feel happier), while others find little or no impact. For AP Psych, remember this connects to Topic 4.7 (emotion), the idea that physiological arousal can precede cognitive appraisal, and that evidence is mixed (CED 4.7.A.1). For a quick review, check the Topic 4.7 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-psych-new/unit-5/7-emotion/study-guide/Szn8FZvfygLjPFSb) and practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-psych-new).
I'm confused about whether making facial expressions actually makes us feel emotions - does smiling really make you happier?
Short answer: maybe—but not like magic. The facial-feedback hypothesis (CED 4.7.A.1) says your facial movements can influence your emotional experience, so smiling can slightly increase positive feelings because the physiological expression feeds back to your brain. Research produces mixed results: some lab studies find small effects (e.g., holding a smile can raise mood a bit), while others find little or no change. That fits the CED point that physiological changes may precede cognitive appraisal for some emotions, but the effect is neither large nor universal. For the AP exam, be ready to explain the facial-feedback idea and note mixed empirical support under LO 4.7.A. For review, see the Topic 4.7 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-psych-new/unit-5/7-emotion/study-guide/Szn8FZvfygLjPFSb) and try practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-psych-new).
What's the broaden-and-build theory of emotion and why does it matter?
The broaden-and-build theory says positive emotions (like joy, curiosity) broaden your momentary attention and thinking—you notice more options, try new actions, and think more creatively. Over time those broadened moments “build” durable resources: social ties, skills, knowledge, resilience. By contrast, negative emotions narrow focus (fight-or-flight), limiting options and attention. This matters because it links emotion to behavior and mental processes (CED 4.7.A.2): positive affect can improve creativity, problem-solving, and social bonding, while negative affect narrows behavior and coping. On the AP exam you might be asked to explain how this theory predicts behavior or mental changes, so name the broadening vs. narrowing effect and give an example (e.g., joy → exploring new hobbies → stronger social network). For a quick review, see the Topic 4.7 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-psych-new/unit-5/7-emotion/study-guide/Szn8FZvfygLjPFSb). Practice related questions at (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-psych-new).
How do positive emotions affect our thinking differently than negative emotions?
Positive emotions and negative emotions change how you think. According to the broaden-and-build theory, positive emotions (like joy or interest) broaden your attention and thinking—you notice more options, use more creative/divergent thinking, and explore new ideas. Negative emotions (like fear or anger) narrow attention and focus you on specific threats or problems, which helps quick, focused action but reduces creativity and flexible thinking. This fits AP terms: positive affect broadens awareness and builds resources over time; negative affect narrows thinking and action. The facial-feedback hypothesis and cognitive appraisal ideas remind you that bodily states and how you label feelings also shape thinking, but broaden-and-build is the main idea for Topic 4.7 (Emotion). For AP prep, review Topic 4.7 in the Fiveable study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-psych-new/unit-5/7-emotion/study-guide/Szn8FZvfygLjPFSb) and practice questions at (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-psych-new) to see examples that might appear on the exam.
Are emotions like happiness and anger the same across all cultures or do they vary?
Short answer: both. Research (e.g., Paul Ekman) suggests some “basic” emotions—anger, disgust, sadness, happiness, surprise, fear—are commonly experienced and have similar facial expressions across many cultures, but findings are mixed. Cultural display rules and different elicitors change how people show and interpret emotions: some cultures suppress negative displays, others encourage them. The CED emphasizes emotional universality is not absolute (4.7.B.1–4.7.B.2). The facial-feedback idea and cognitive appraisal statements in Topic 4.7 also show that physiology and labeling influence emotion, so culture shapes experience as well as expression. For AP exam prep, know the keywords (basic emotions, Paul Ekman, cultural display rules, facial-feedback hypothesis, cognitive appraisal) and that evidence is mixed—expect questions asking you to explain how theory and culture affect emotional expression. Review the Topic 4.7 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-psych-new/unit-5/7-emotion/study-guide/Szn8FZvfygLjPFSb) and practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-psych-new).
What are display rules and how do they control how we show emotions?
Display rules are culturally learned social norms that tell you which emotions to show, when, and how strongly. They’re not the feelings themselves (affect) but rules about expression—so cultures, genders, ages, and social classes can all set different expectations. For example, some cultures encourage hiding anger in public; others expect open displays. Paul Ekman’s cross-cultural work suggests basic emotions (anger, disgust, sadness, happiness, surprise, fear) may be universal, but display rules shape the outward expression and interpretation of those emotions. Display rules also affect emotion regulation and how you read others’ faces (facial-feedback links expression to feeling). On the AP exam, this maps to Topic 4.7.B (how social norms influence emotional expression). For a quick review, see the Topic 4.7 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-psych-new/unit-5/7-emotion/study-guide/Szn8FZvfygLjPFSb). Practice more questions at Fiveable (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-psych-new) to solidify this concept.
Why might men and women be expected to express emotions differently in the same culture?
Because cultures teach “display rules” that tell people which emotions are okay to show—and those rules often differ by gender. From childhood, boys and girls get different socialization messages (parents, peers, media) about which feelings are acceptable, so men may be encouraged to hide sadness or fear and show anger or stoicism, while women may be encouraged to express sadness or affection and suppress anger. These gendered display rules change the elicitors people learn to attend to, how they regulate physiological arousal, and the facial/body expressions they use, even though basic emotions may be universal (anger, fear, happiness, etc.). This idea is part of Topic 4.7’s focus on how social norms influence emotional expression (CED 4.7.B; keywords: cultural display rules, gendered display rules, emotion regulation). For quick review, see the Topic 4.7 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-psych-new/unit-5/7-emotion/study-guide/Szn8FZvfygLjPFSb). If you want practice questions on this, check Fiveable’s practice bank (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-psych-new).
I don't understand how culture affects which emotions we're allowed to show - can you give examples?
Culture shapes "display rules"—learned social norms about which emotions you show, when, and to whom. For example: in many East Asian cultures, people downplay strong positive or negative displays (keeping calm) to preserve group harmony; in some Western cultures, expressing pride or excitement is more acceptable. Gendered display rules also matter: males in many cultures are taught to hide sadness or fear, while females may be allowed or expected to show them. The CED calls these cultural display rules and notes that elicitors and expression vary across gender, age, and class. Paul Ekman’s cross-cultural work found basic emotions (anger, disgust, sadness, happiness, surprise, fear) are often experienced, but display rules change how they’re shown. For AP exam prep, remember to connect cultural display rules to emotion regulation and universality debates (see Topic 4.7 study guide for quick review) (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-psych-new/unit-5/7-emotion/study-guide/Szn8FZvfygLjPFSb). For more practice, try problems at (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-psych-new) and skim the Unit 4 overview (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-psych-new/unit-4).
What are the six emotions that researchers think might be universal across cultures?
Researchers often list six “basic” emotions that may be universal across cultures: anger, disgust, sadness, happiness (or joy), surprise, and fear. These map to AP keywords like “basic emotions,” “emotional universality,” and are the ones often used in cross-cultural facial expression research (note: results are mixed and culture shapes display rules and elicitors). For the exam, be ready to define these emotions, explain how display rules vary by culture, and connect the idea to concepts like the facial-feedback hypothesis and broaden-and-build theory. Want a quick refresher or practice questions on Topic 4.7? Check the Fiveable study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-psych-new/unit-5/7-emotion/study-guide/Szn8FZvfygLjPFSb) and practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-psych-new).
How do social norms influence when and how we express our feelings?
Social norms shape when and how you show feelings through cultural “display rules” and expected elicitors (what triggers an emotional display). Display rules tell you whether to amplify, mask, or withhold emotions—for example, some cultures encourage restraint of anger in public, others expect loud grief at funerals. Gendered display rules also matter: people socialized as women often get more freedom to show sadness, while men may be taught to hide it. These norms influence emotion regulation (how you manage expressions), timing (when it’s appropriate to cry or laugh), and interpretation (how others read your face/body). Research on emotional universality finds basic emotions across cultures but mixed results on display rules and elicitors. For AP exam prep, link this to LO 4.7.B and use keywords like cultural display rules, elicitors, emotion regulation, and emotional universality. Review the Topic 4.7 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-psych-new/unit-5/7-emotion/study-guide/Szn8FZvfygLjPFSb) and do practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-psych-new).
What's the difference between feeling an emotion internally and expressing it outwardly?
Feeling an emotion (internal) is your subjective experience plus physiological arousal and cognitive appraisal—for example, your heart races and you think “I’m scared.” Expressing an emotion (external) is the behavior others see: facial expressions, tone, gestures. Theories in the CED separate physiological arousal from cognitive labeling (and note some say they happen together). Facial-feedback research even suggests expressions can influence the feeling itself. Social factors shape expression: cultural display rules and gendered norms tell you when and how to show emotions, so you might feel angry but mask it. For the AP exam, know the distinction (internal affect vs. outward expression), related keywords (physiological arousal, cognitive appraisal, facial-feedback hypothesis, display rules), and how social norms influence expression. For a focused review, check the Topic 4.7 study guide on Fiveable (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-psych-new/unit-5/7-emotion/study-guide/Szn8FZvfygLjPFSb) and practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-psych-new).
Why do negative emotions make us think more narrowly while positive ones broaden our awareness?
Negative emotions narrow thinking because they trigger an adaptive “tighten up” response: fear, anger, or anxiety ramps up physiological arousal and a focused cognitive appraisal so you spot threats and act quickly (think fight-or-flight). That reduces attention to peripheral info and narrows possible actions. By contrast, the broaden-and-build theory (CED 4.7.A.2) says positive emotions loosen that focus—joy, interest, and contentment broaden attention, encourage creative and flexible thinking, and help you try new actions that build long-term physical, social, and cognitive resources. So negative affect promotes immediate survival-focused, narrow choices, while positive affect expands your awareness and fosters exploration and learning. Both are adaptive depending on context. For AP review, remember the broaden-and-build idea and link it to affect, cognitive appraisal, and physiological arousal (see Topic 4.7 study guide: https://library.fiveable.me/ap-psych-new/unit-5/7-emotion/study-guide/Szn8FZvfygLjPFSb). For extra practice, try problems at https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-psych-new.
I missed the lecture on emotion theories - which ones focus on whether physical feelings or thoughts come first?
Good question—AP focuses on three basic positions about which comes first: bodily feelings, thoughts, or both at once. - Physiological-first theories: these say bodily arousal (heart rate, sweating, facial expression) happens first and then you feel the emotion. The facial-feedback hypothesis is an example mentioned in the CED—your expression can influence the emotion. - Cognitive-first theories: these say your appraisal or interpretation of a situation creates the emotion (thoughts → feeling). The CED calls this cognitive appraisal. - Simultaneous/interactive theories: these say physiological and cognitive components happen together or that you need both arousal and a cognitive label to experience emotion. For the exam, be able to explain how each view applies to behavior and mental processes (CED 4.7.A.1). If you want a quick refresher, check the Topic 4.7 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-psych-new/unit-5/7-emotion/study-guide/Szn8FZvfygLjPFSb) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-psych-new).