Last section, we reviewed secondary dominants in depth. Here, we will give voice leading rules to write secondary dominants. First, let’s review what tonicization and secondary dominants are:
Tonicization and Secondary Dominants
Tonicization is a really brief modulation of keys, where you just borrow a few notes from another key. The key that you are borrowing notes from is usually called the secondary key, and the tonic of the secondary key is called the temporary tonic.
For example, in a piece of music in the key of C major, the tonicization of the key of G major would involve the use of chords and progressions that are characteristic of G major, such as the use of the G major chord, or the progression I-V-vi-IV, before resolving back to the C major chord.
The best way to identify tonicizations is to look for accidentals from closely related keys in a passage. This is especially true if you notice an accidental (that is not the leading tone in minor) resolving upward by step. This is called a leading tone relationship, and it is likely that this note is resolving to a temporary tonic note.
Now that you know the tonic of the secondary key, you can figure out which chord led into the temporary tonic. Most likely, this chord will have a dominant function, so it will either be a V chord or a vii chord in the secondary key.
You can only tonicize major or minor triads–not diminished or augmented triads. That means that in a major key, vii° cannot be tonicized, and in a minor key, ii° cannot be tonicized. In written music, it is easy to identify tonicization when there are accidentals.
It is most common to tonicize to the dominant, the subdominant, or the supertonic (V, IV, ii) of the primary key. For example, in A major, the secondary key would be the dominant–E major–so the secondary dominant would be the dominant of E major–B major. So, if you're looking at a piece in A major and you see II chords popping up, then you may want to consider the idea that you are looking at a tonicization.
Secondary Dominants
The reason why we usually have the chord leading into the temporary tonic as a dominant chord is that we want listeners to hear the temporary tonic as a tonic. Since the leading tone in dominant chords have a strong tendency to resolve to the tonic, the leading tone in these “temporary” dominant chords have a strong tendency to resolve to the temporary tonic.
These temporary dominant chords have a special name: secondary dominants.
The most common secondary dominant is the V/V, which is the dominant of the dominant chord. For example, in the key of C major, the dominant chord is G major, and the V/V is D major. By using the D major chord, the music temporarily tonicizes the key of G major before resolving back to C major.
Secondary dominants can also tonicize chords other than the dominant. For example, in the key of C major, the V/ii tonicization, which uses the A Major chord followed by the D minor chord, temporarily tonicizes the D minor chord. We can also have the secondary dominant of the subdominant, which would be a V/IV chord, and it would resolve to the IV chord.
Notice that in C Major, the V/IV chord resolving to the IV chord won’t have extra accidentals, so it would be hard to tell if this is a I-IV progression or a V/IV-IV progression. Usually, though, it will be apparent from context if there is a temporary tonicization. This might include adding accidentals, specifically a Bb in C Major, in non-chord tones or surrounding chords, or it might involve using the subdominant tone more frequently surrounding the chord progression.
Secondary dominants are usually used around cadences. Secondary dominants can also be extended to create longer chains of tonicization, known as "cadential extension." This can involve the use of multiple secondary dominants in succession, creating a sense of tension and release as the music temporarily tonicizes multiple keys before resolving back to the main key.
Cadential extension usually involves either adding suffixes or prefixes to the cadence, although developing the dominant and tonic sections of a cadence is also possible. Suffixes are harmonic extensions of the cadence after resolving to the dominant section, and usually involve tonicizing chords other than the dominant in order to prolong the section after a phrase. For example, you can have a V-I cadence, followed by a V/ii-ii cadence, and so on. These suffixes can either eventually resolve back to the home key, as in an ascending fourths harmonic sequence, or they can signal modulation to a new key. Note that it is always the case that these tonicizations will involve chromaticizations in order to ensure that the secondary dominant is a Major triad or Major-minor seventh chord.
Prefixes, on the other hand, also have the same properties has suffixes in terms of the chromaticizations and the ascending fourths sequence, but these prefixes end with a cadence in the home key, since they are appearing before the final cadence. For example, a ii-V/IV-IV-V-I cadential extension is common. Notice that if we wrote this is a ii-I-IV-V-I cadence, we obfuscate the fact that the I chord is acting as a secondary dominant for the IV chord, and it looks strange that a ii is voice leading to a I chord. This is why contextual analysis is important.
Part Writing Secondary Dominants
When part writing secondary dominants, we should always use the same voice leading rules as when writing a V-I cadence. Specifically, we should always resolve the “leading tone,” i.e. the third of the secondary dominant chord, up by step.
Usually, secondary dominant chords will be written in 1st inversion so that the #4 is on the bottom. A IV-V⁶₅/V-V progression is common because it establishes the bassline 4-#4-5, and a chromatic bassline sounds cool. Additionally, if you see the #4-5 progression, then you can assume that it is a V/V-V progression of some sort.
When we voice lead from a complete V chord or a complete V7 chord in the secondary key, it is okay to write an incomplete I chord in the secondary key if this works better in the overall harmonic progression. This is only true, though, if the I chord in the secondary key is in root position. In this case, we will usually triple the root of the chord, and only have one instance of the third of the chord, so as to prevent parallel thirds or fifths.
We can write perfect authentic cadences in secondary keys, or we can write some other type of cadence in the secondary key. We want to make sure that it is a cadence because we want the listener to “hear” the tonic of the primary key as a temporary tonic. However, we can have strong cadences or weaker cadences to fulfill this need.
Regular, Irregular, and Deceptive Resolution
When a secondary dominant, e.g. V/V, resolves to the tonic chord of the secondary key, e.g. V/V-V progressions, we call this regular resolution.
If we write a perfect authentic cadence in the secondary key, then we want the new tonic to sound very strong. This strategy is often used when modulating to a new key. Remember: here are the rules for writing perfect authentic cadences:
- It must use a V chord as the dominant chord (as opposed to a vii or viio chord) ✅
- Both chords must be in root position. ✅
- The soprano voice must end on the tonic. ✅
- The soprano must move by step. ✅
Notice that if we are to follow these rules, then we must write the leading tone of the secondary key in the soprano voice.
We can also write imperfect authentic cadences using secondary dominants – for example, if one of the chords is not in root position. We don’t usually write plagal cadences, e.g. IV/V-V when using tonicizations.
Here is an example of regular resolution:
Image via Open Music Theory.-,Tonicization%20is%20the%20process%20of%20making%20a%20non%2Dtonic%20chord,applied%20leading%2Dtone%20chords).)
Irregular resolution occurs when we move to a substitute of the tonic chord of the primary key. An example is a V/IV-ii6 progression, or a vii/V-I6/4 progression. These are effective because a ii6 chord, especially where the third is doubled, is a substitute for the subdominant IV chord, and similarly, the I 6/4 chord often acts as a substitute for the dominant V chord.
Here are examples of these progressions:
Image via https://music.utk.edu/theorycomp/courses/murphy/documents/SecondaryDominants.pdf
Finally, deceptive resolution would involve moving from the V of the secondary key to the sixth of a secondary key. An example would be a V6/5/V moving to a iii chord.
🦜 Polly wants a progress tracker: Look at this exam question from the 2018 AP Music Theory FRQ section. Can you resolve the secondary dominant properly?
Frequently Asked Questions
How do I write a bass line when the soprano has chromatic notes that suggest secondary dominants?
If the soprano has a chromatic pitch that implies a secondary dominant (for example F# → G in C major suggesting V/V), let the bass confirm that tonicization by outlining the secondary-dominant root and then moving to the target chord’s root or to the dominant. Keep these rules from the CED in mind (PIT-2.E.2 and PIT-2.E.3): - Put the bass on the secondary-dominant’s root (or a common inversion) so the harmony is clear (e.g., D or D–F#–A for V/V in C). - Then move the bass to the actual dominant (G) or to the tonic of the tonicized chord using smooth, mostly stepwise motion (root motion by descending 5th or ascending 4th is standard). - Obey voice-leading norms: resolve any chordal 7th down by step, let leading tones resolve toward tonic, avoid voice crossing and large leaps in upper voices, and follow proper doubling rules. - If the soprano is the raised scale degree (the secondary leading tone), make sure another voice (not the bass if it must outline roots) supplies the 3rd or root so the V/X is complete. For more examples and practice problems, see the Topic 7.2 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-7/part-writing-secondary-dominant-chords/study-guide/S2WJUDMF6J2GBqPvLiGg), the Unit 7 overview (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-7), and the practice set (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/music-theory).
What's the difference between a regular dominant chord and a secondary dominant in part writing?
A regular dominant (V) is the dominant of the home key; a secondary dominant is a dominant that temporarily tonicizes some diatonic chord other than the tonic (e.g., V/V is the dominant of V). In part-writing the big difference is function, not new rules: you still follow all normal dominant voice-leading and doubling rules (chordal sevenths resolve down by step, avoid parallel fifths/octaves, sensible doublings)—that’s explicitly in the CED (PIT-2.E.2). What changes is chromatic alteration: a raised scale degree (like ♯2 in V/V) or a chromatic pitch in soprano/bass can imply tonicization (PIT-2.E.3). So write the secondary dominant as you would a real V of its temporary key, then resolve it to the chord it tonicizes. For practice, review the Topic 7.2 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-7/part-writing-secondary-dominant-chords/study-guide/S2WJUDMF6J2GBqPvLiGg), the Unit 7 overview (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-7), and try problems at (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/music-theory).
I don't understand how to resolve chordal sevenths in secondary dominants - do they always go down by step?
Short answer: yes—treat chordal sevenths in secondary dominants the same way you treat any dominant seventh: the seventh should resolve down by step. PIT-2.E.2 in the CED says all doubling and voice-leading rules for normal dominants apply to secondary dominants, so the voice holding the 7th of V/X moves down by step (usually into the chordal third of the tonicized chord). For example, in V/V → V in major, the F♯ (7th of V/V if that chord is a V7) will resolve down to E (the 3rd of V). Exceptions are rare and explicit in the CED scoring notes (e.g., a specific i–V3/4–i6 minor progression can allow an upward step), so don’t assume other exceptions. Unresolved or incorrectly resolved sevenths are graded as voice-leading errors on the AP exam. For more examples and practice, see the Topic 7.2 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-7/part-writing-secondary-dominant-chords/study-guide/S2WJUDMF6J2GBqPvLiGg) and try problems at (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/music-theory).
When I see a sharp 4 going to 5 in the soprano, does that automatically mean I need to use V/V in the bass?
Not automatically. A ♯4 → 5 in the soprano is a strong clue that the composer might be tonicizing V (because ♯4 functions as the raised third of V/V and resolves to scale degree 5), but context decides. It could be: - an actual V/V (or vii°/V) if the other voices and bass form the secondary dominant (contain the raised third and appropriate root or 7th), or - just a chromatic passing/neighbor tone that doesn’t imply a new harmony. If you choose V/V, follow CED voice-leading rules: don’t double the secondary leading tone, resolve any chordal 7th down by step, avoid voice crossing and hidden/direct parallel perfect intervals, and make sure the bass supports the secondary dominant’s root or inversion. AP tasks expect you to infer harmony from chromatic soprano shapes but also to check full sonority (PIT-2.E.2, PIT-2.E.3). For examples and drills, see the Topic 7.2 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-7/part-writing-secondary-dominant-chords/study-guide/S2WJUDMF6J2GBqPvLiGg) and practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/music-theory).
How do I know when chromatic pitches are suggesting tonicization versus just being passing tones?
Think of it like asking: “Is that sharp trying to make a new key center, or just filling space?” Key clues that a chromatic pitch is tonicizing (not a passing tone): - It’s a raised scale degree that functions as a leading tone to a chord other than the tonic (e.g., ♯2 resolving to 3 suggests V/V). CED: PIT-2.E.3 specifically calls out ♯̂̄ → ̂̅ as a V/V pattern. - Other voices support the temporary tonic: you’ll hear an actual V (or vii°) built for the target chord, not just one chromatic note alone. In part writing, the chordal seventh still resolves correctly and doublings follow dominant rules (PIT-2.E.2). - Metric emphasis & duration: the chromatic pitch appears on a strong beat or is sustained into the harmony change—passing tones are short, stepwise, and usually on weak beats. - Voice-leading: tonicizing chromatic pitches resolve as real leading tones (by step to the tonic of the local chord); passing chromatics move by step between chord tones. For practice, try part-writing examples in the Topic 7.2 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-7/part-writing-secondary-dominant-chords/study-guide/S2WJUDMF6J2GBqPvLiGg) and more exercises at (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/music-theory). These patterns show up on AP part-writing and harmony questions, so train your ear to spot supporting voices and resolution behavior.
What voice leading rules do I need to follow when writing secondary dominants in four parts?
When writing secondary dominants in four parts, follow the same 18th-century rules you use for a normal V: keep correct doublings (don’t double the leading tone of the tonicized chord), resolve any chordal seventh down by step, and let raised scale degrees act as true leading tones (e.g., the #̂ in V/V resolves to ̂). Avoid parallel fifths/octaves between any parts, prevent voice crossing/overlap, keep reasonable spacing (no more than an octave between outer upper voices), and keep melodic lines singable (small, mostly stepwise motion in inner voices). If the secondary dominant is a V7, include all four chord tones (or omit the fifth if needed) and resolve the seventh downward. These are exactly the AP expectations in PIT-2.E (see the CED). For practice, review the Topic 7.2 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-7/part-writing-secondary-dominant-chords/study-guide/S2WJUDMF6J2GBqPvLiGg) and try problems at Fiveable Practice (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/music-theory).
Can someone explain what "normative harmonic procedures of 18th-century music" actually means for my part writing?
“Normative harmonic procedures of 18th-century music” just means you need to follow the voice-leading and doubling rules that composers used in the Classical/baroque tradition when you write a bass to a given soprano that implies a secondary dominant. Practically, for part writing of V/V (or any secondary dominant): - Treat the secondary dominant like a regular dominant: include/prepare and resolve sevenths down by step, and keep the raised scale degree (e.g., ♯2 in V/V) resolving to the chordal third of the tonicized chord (♯2 → 3 of V). (CED PIT-2.E.2) - Avoid doubled leading tones, resolve leading tones upward or as required, and follow standard doubling rules (double root in root position; don’t double the leading tone). Watch for hidden/direct octaves/fifths between outer voices. - Preserve good soprano–bass counterpoint: smooth bass motion, no voice crossing, sensible spacing, and correct inversions when indicated. (CED keywords: voice-leading, doubling rules, soprano-bass counterpoint) On the exam you’ll be judged on correct chord spelling, voice leading, and Roman numerals (see Part Writing task rubric). For a focused refresher, check the Topic 7.2 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-7/part-writing-secondary-dominant-chords/study-guide/S2WJUDMF6J2GBqPvLiGg) and practice lots of problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/music-theory).
How do I identify which chord is being tonicized when I see chromatic notes in the given soprano line?
Look at the chromatic pitch as a clue to a temporary key center: ask “which scale degree is it raising, and where does it resolve?” For example, a raised 2̂ (♯̂) that then resolves stepwise to 3̂ usually functions as the leading tone of V (so you’re seeing V/V). Likewise, a chromatic ♯4̂ resolving to 5̂ suggests tonicization of V (or V/ V’s relative). Check the melodic resolution: leading tones normally resolve up by step; chordal sevenths resolve down by step (CED PIT-2.E.2). Also read implied bass motion—if the bass or suggested harmony supports a V of some chord, that’s your tonicized chord. On the exam, label the secondary with the target chord (e.g., V/V) and ensure correct voice-leading (no doubled leading tone, sevenths resolve). For more examples and practice, see the Topic 7.2 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-7/part-writing-secondary-dominant-chords/study-guide/S2WJUDMF6J2GBqPvLiGg) and unit resources (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-7).
I'm confused about doubling in secondary dominant chords - what notes can I double and which ones should I avoid?
Short answer: treat secondary dominants just like real dominants—keep normal doubling and voice-leading rules, and don’t double the tones that create problems for resolution. Practical rules: - Double the root of the secondary dominant whenever possible (V/V in root position → double its root). That’s the safest choice. - Never double the raised leading tone that resolves into the tonicized chord (e.g., the #2 in V/V when tonicizing V)—it behaves like a leading tone and must resolve by step. - Don’t double the chordal seventh (seventh chords): the seventh should resolve down by step (CED PIT-2.E.2). - If you must (in inversions or spacing limits), you can double other chord members (not the leading tone or seventh) or the soprano for better voice leading—avoid parallel 5ths/8ves and voice crossing. - For V6 (secondary dominant in first inversion) make sure the doubled tone won’t spoil resolution (often double a chord tone that moves by step). These follow the AP requirement to maintain normal dominant doubling/voice-leading when writing secondary dominants (CED Topic 7.2). For examples and practice, see the Topic 7.2 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-7/part-writing-secondary-dominant-chords/study-guide/S2WJUDMF6J2GBqPvLiGg) and try problems at Fiveable Practice (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/music-theory).
What's the proper way to resolve a V7/V chord in four-part writing?
Think of V7/V as a normal V7, but aimed at the dominant. In four parts: spell the secondary dominant (e.g., in C major: D–F#–A–C as V7/V) and resolve it to V (G–B–D). Follow the CED rules: the chordal seventh (C) must resolve down by step to the third of V (C → B), the raised leading tone (F#) resolves to G (the tonic of the tonicized chord), and don’t double the leading tone. Prefer doubling the root of the V7/V (D) or another chord tone that won’t create voice-leading problems. Avoid parallel fifths/octaves between outer voices; aim for contrary or oblique motion into the V. Bass motion commonly goes up a fourth (D → G) or down a fifth. On the AP, mark correct resolution of the seventh and leading tone and keep correct doublings/spacing (see PIT-2.E in the CED). For extra practice and examples, check the Topic 7.2 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-7/part-writing-secondary-dominant-chords/study-guide/S2WJUDMF6J2GBqPvLiGg) and Unit 7 (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-7); there are 1000+ practice problems at (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/music-theory).
How do I write a bass line that implies harmonic progressions when the soprano line has lots of chromatic movement?
Spot the chromatic pitches and ask: what tonic do they want? A raised scale degree in the soprano (like ♯2 moving to 2 or ♯4 → 4) usually implies a secondary dominant (V/x) whose resolution you should support in the bass. Steps to sketch a bass: 1. Identify tonicizations (CED PIT-2.E.3): locate chromatic raised tones and their target scale degree (e.g., ♯2 → 2 suggests V/V → V). 2. Place the bass on the root of the implied chord (or its appropriate inversion) on the strong beat so harmonic function is clear. 3. Use stepwise or fifth/third motion in the bass toward the target chord; avoid awkward leaps and voice crossing with soprano. 4. Maintain dominant voice-leading rules (CED PIT-2.E.2): resolve chordal sevenths down, keep correct doublings, avoid parallels in outer voices. 5. If soprano moves chromatically across a beat, keep bass more stable (sustained tones or stepwise support) to make the progression audible. Practice this on melodies from the Unit 7 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-7/part-writing-secondary-dominant-chords/study-guide/S2WJUDMF6J2GBqPvLiGg) and more problems at (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/music-theory).
Do secondary dominants always have to resolve to their target chord or can they be deceptive?
Short answer: usually they resolve to their target, but they can be deceptive—with important caveats for AP part-writing. Why: a secondary dominant (like V/V) functions as a local dominant, so the raised scale degree (the altered leading tone) and any chordal seventh are expected to resolve as in a normal dominant: leading tones go up to the tonic of the tonicized chord, sevenths resolve down by step, and doubling/spacing rules still apply (CED PIT-2.E.2). That’s what the exam expects when you “continue logically” in an 18th-century style. Deceptive exceptions: composers sometimes avoid the expected V → I (of the tonicized chord)—for example V → vi (or V/V moving to something other than V)—but if you do that on the exam, make sure every voice still follows voice-leading conventions (no unresolved sevenths, correct leading-tone resolution, no parallel fifths/octaves). If you’re part-writing a bass for a given soprano, the safer answer is to show the normal resolution unless the prompt suggests a tonicization will be left unresolved. Practice this on the Topic 7.2 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-7/part-writing-secondary-dominant-chords/study-guide/S2WJUDMF6J2GBqPvLiGg) and use the Unit 7 overview (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-7) and 1000+ practice items (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/music-theory) to get comfortable with both standard and deceptive resolutions.
I don't understand the melodic pattern of sharp 4 to 5 - why does this suggest V/V specifically?
Think of the sharped 4 as a temporary leading tone aimed at scale degree 5. Raising 4 creates a half-step approach to 5, so melodically ♯4 → 5 sounds like a tonic → leading-tone resolution but one step up the functional ladder: it’s leading into the dominant (V). That chromatic pitch therefore implies a secondary dominant (V/V) because you’re temporarily “tonicizing” V—the raised 4 behaves like the leading tone of the dominant key and wants to resolve up to 5. On the AP CED this is exactly PIT-2.E.3: chromatic pitches can imply tonicization; and when you write the full harmony, follow normal dominant voice-leading (e.g., chordal sevenths resolve down) per PIT-2.E.2. For more examples and part-writing practice see the Topic 7.2 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-7/part-writing-secondary-dominant-chords/study-guide/S2WJUDMF6J2GBqPvLiGg) and Unit 7 overview (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-7). For lots of drills: https://library.fiveable.me/practice/music-theory.
What are the most common voice leading errors students make when part writing secondary dominants?
Common mistakes when part-writing secondary dominants (V/V, etc.): - Not resolving chordal sevenths down by step—every dominant sevenths voice should drop a step (CED PIT-2.E.2). - Doubling the raised leading tone (the chromatic alteration) or doubling any leading tone—usually double the root of the secondary dominant, not the altered scale degree. - Forgetting to raise the appropriate pitch (♯̂) so the secondary dominant actually functions; that kills the tonicization. - Parallel or direct (hidden) fifths/octaves between outer voices when moving to the next chord—check for similar motion into a perfect interval. - Voice crossing/overlapping and excessive spacing (more than an octave between upper parts). - Leaving the leading tone or the seventh unresolved in an outer voice (especially on the exam’s part-writing tasks). Quick tips: always spell the secondary dominant correctly, resolve 7ths down, avoid doubling altered tones, and re-check outer-voice parallels. For step-by-step practice and AP-style problems, see the Topic 7.2 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-7/part-writing-secondary-dominant-chords/study-guide/S2WJUDMF6J2GBqPvLiGg) and the Unit 7 overview (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-7). For more drills, try the practice bank (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/music-theory).
How should I approach part writing when the soprano line suggests multiple possible tonicizations?
If the soprano can imply more than one tonicization, pick the one best supported by melodic tendency and then write the bass to confirm it. Quick checklist: 1. Identify any chromatic pitch (e.g., a raised scale degree like ♯̂) and ask which chord it most strongly resolves to—that usually picks the tonicized chord (CED PIT-2.E.3). 2. Choose the secondary dominant that fits that resolution (e.g., V/V if ♯̂ resolves to ̂). 3. Write a bass that outlines the secondary dominant’s root and clear root motion into the tonicized chord (avoid ambiguous chromatic bass leaps). 4. Apply normal dominant voice-leading: resolve chordal 7ths down by step, resolve leading tones up, avoid doubled leading tones, keep good doublings and spacing (CED PIT-2.E.2). 5. Check for voice crossing and that soprano + bass form a plausible counterpoint. On the AP exam you’ll be scored for correct harmonic implication and voice leading (see part-writing tasks like figured-bass/Roman-numeral responses). For extra practice, review the Topic 7.2 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-7/part-writing-secondary-dominant-chords/study-guide/S2WJUDMF6J2GBqPvLiGg), the Unit 7 overview (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-7), and try practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/music-theory).