Raise your hand if you are a soprano!
Raise your hand if you are a tenor!
Don't know yet? Not a problem. However, it will be helpful to get to know your voice range if you haven't already. On the AP Music Theory test, you will need to sing for some of the FRQs and also be able to transpose a written piece of music into your range. If you haven't done much singing before, it's time to start clearing out those cobwebs in your vocal chords!
Musical lines, whether in instrumental or vocal pieces, may be described using the vocal parts: soprano, alto, tenor, bass. This is called SATB, for short. These are the four main vocal parts in choral music. The soprano is the highest vocal range, followed by the alto, tenor, and bass, which is the lowest vocal range.
In choral music, these four vocal parts are typically written in four-part harmony, meaning that each part has its own unique melody that is harmonized with the other parts. The combination of these four parts creates a rich and full sound that is characteristic of choral music.
In SATB (soprano, alto, tenor, and bass) vocal music, voice leading refers to the way that these four vocal parts move in relation to each other. Good voice leading can help to create a smooth and harmonically interesting texture in a composition, and it is an important aspect of music composition and arranging.
When we examine a composition in four-part harmonies, we will also be using the SATB texture to complete a Roman-numeral Analysis. This means that for each chord in the harmony, we want to figure out which diatonic chord and which inversion it is in.
Realizing a figured bass refers to the process of interpreting the harmonies indicated by the figures in a figured bass notation and turning them into an actual musical realization, either by playing or singing the chords indicated by the figures or by transcribing them into standard chord notation.
Figured bass notation was commonly used during the Baroque period to indicate the harmonies that should be played or sung in a composition, but it did not specify the exact voicings or melodies for the individual parts. Therefore, realizing a figured bass involves making creative decisions about how to voice the chords and which notes to use in each voice, based on the harmonies indicated by the figures.
Realizing a figured bass can be a complex process, as it requires a good understanding of harmony and the ability to make musical decisions that will work well within the context of the composition. However, for the purposes of AP Music Theory, you should try to follow all of the voice leading rules that you are given.
We’ll introduce some voice leading rules in each chapter – there are a lot that we have to cover. In the last chapter, we went over rules for writing the soprano line (the top line of the music) and the bass line (the bottom line of the music). As a review, here are those rules:
For the soprano line, here are a few things that you should keep in mind:
- Voice leading should proceed mostly by step without excessive leaps.
- When possible, pitches common to adjacent chords, or common tones, should be retained in the same voice part(s).
- For clarity of voice leading, any chord should maintain soprano-alto-tenor-bass (SATB) order from high to low to avoid voice crossing.
- If a perfect fifth between two voices is not immediately repeated, it should proceed to an interval other than another perfect fifth between the same voices. This applies to parallel motion (i.e., parallel fifths) as well as contrary motion; it also applies to nonadjacent chords on successive beats.
- If a perfect octave or unison between two voices is not immediately repeated, it should proceed to an interval other than another perfect octave or perfect unison between the same voices. This applies to parallel motion (i.e., parallel octaves) as well as contrary motion; it also applies to nonadjacent chords on successive beats.
- All voices should proceed melodically with the following intervals—major and minor second, major and minor third, perfect fourth, and perfect fifth. All melodic augmented and diminished intervals should be excluded, as they produce uncharacteristic dissonances. All melodic intervals larger than a perfect fifth should also be excluded, as they create uncharacteristic disjunct motion.
- The leading tone in an outer voice (i.e., soprano or bass) should always resolve up by step to avoid an unresolved leading tone
- Outer voices may include leading tones as long as those leading tones are not doubled in another voice and resolve to the tonic by ascending in stepwise motion, to avoid an unresolved leading tone.
And, for the bass line, we have:
- All implied chords must allow the corresponding soprano notes to make harmonic sense.
- An acceptable harmonic progression can be made using tonic, supertonic, subdominant, and dominant triads exclusively, as long as the normative procedures of harmonic progression are followed.
- Repeated instances of a specific harmony— that is, repeating a particular chord in a particular position (root position or inversion)— are acceptable only if the repeated harmonies start on a strong beat. However, at the beginning of a phrase, the repeated harmonies may start on a weak beat.
- Melodic interest in a bass line may be created by balancing upward and downward motion and by balancing melodic steps and leaps.
- A bass line uses melodic leaps with greater frequency than upper voices or parts, which tend toward more stepwise motion.
- Allowable leaps include thirds, perfect fourths and fifths, sixths, and octaves, and, if resolved properly, descending diminished fifths.
- Octave leaps should be followed by changes in direction.
- The bass line may include successive leaps in the same direction as long as the pitches outline a triad.
- Repeated bass notes are acceptable only if they start on a strong beat. However, the repeated notes may start on a weak beat if it is the beginning of a phrase or if the second note is a suspension.
- Although bass lines may feature note values ranging from half notes to eighth notes, the quarter note is the most frequent rhythmic value
Doubling Rules
Now, it’s time to add a few more rules. Introducing… doubling rules! When you are writing a four part harmony, you will have to double (aka reuse) one note for triads, since triads only have three notes. Sometimes, you also might double the notes from a seventh chord, if you choose to exclude one note from the chord. Here is how you should pick which tone to double:
- Double the root of a triad whenever voice leading allows.
- Thirds and fifths may also be doubled in triads when they result in good voice leading.
- In all situations, always double non-tendency tones (i.e., tones other than the leading-tone and chordal seventh).
- If the fifth is omitted in a root-position seventh chord, double the root. § Following a complete root position V7, the tonic triad may have three roots and a third (no fifth).
- In 6/4 chords, always double the bass
What is a tendency tone, you might ask? A tendency tone is a tone that should always be resolved a certain way. For example, the leading tone should always be resolved up to the tonic, and the chordal seventh (the seventh in a V7 chord, and the 4th on the diatonic scale) should always be resolved down to the 3rd.
One more rule for doubling: don’t exclude any tones for inverted chords!
...And Some More Voice Leading Rules
Intervals Between the Voices
Remember when we talked about parallel fifths and parallel octaves between the outer voices? This also applies with inner voices: try not to have fifths or octaves between any of the voices. These are called direct fifths and direct octaves.
Additionally, if outer voices move to a perfect interval by similar motion, the upper voice should proceed by step.
And, just like you shouldn’t have two parallel fifths or octaves between voices, you also should avoid three parallel thirds or sixths between voices.
Finally, you should avoid something called unequal fifths. This is where a diminished fifth resolves to a perfect fifth. Most of the time, you should resolve a diminished fifth to a third. However, one exception is that you can use rising unequal fifths in a I - V 4/3 - I6 chord progression.
These rules are designed so that you vary motion of the voices: we don’t want one voice to be a copy of the other voice but just a third higher.
Spacing Between the Voices
The most important rule about spacing of the voices is that you shouldn’t let the ranges of the voices cross! For example, if the highest note in the tenor voice is a high B on the bass clef, then the lowest note on the alto voice should be no lower than middle C.
How big should the ranges be? Generally, for any chord, the spacing between the three upper voices (soprano, alto, and tenor) should be less than an octave. However, there can be a bigger spacing (and a bigger range) for the bass voice.
🦜 Polly wants a progress tracker: Which voice part is typically a higher male voice? Which voice part is typically a lower female voice?
Frequently Asked Questions
What's the difference between soprano, alto, tenor, and bass voices in SATB writing?
Soprano, alto, tenor, and bass (SATB) simply label four musical lines by relative pitch: soprano = highest, alto = second-highest, tenor = second-lowest, bass = lowest. In AP-style four-part writing you treat them as independent voices: keep each within a comfortable range, avoid voice crossing/overlap, and maintain clear voice leading (contrary motion is preferred between outer voices; don’t make more than three consecutive 3rds or 6ths). Spacing: adjacent upper voices ≤ an octave; bass to tenor may exceed an octave. Doubling: usually double the root (never double the leading tone or chordal 7th); follow inversion rules (complete chords in inversions). Avoid parallel fifths/octaves and hidden/direct fifths/octaves in outer voices; resolve sevenths and leading tones correctly. These conventions are tested on part-writing and figured-bass free responses on the AP exam. For extra practice and a concise guide on SATB voice leading, check Fiveable’s Topic 4.2 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-4/satb-voice-leading/study-guide/c71tSuvM22gVBJGNiw1V) and hundreds of practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/music-theory).
How do I know which note to double in a triad when writing four-part harmony?
Usually you double the root of a triad when voice leading allows—that’s the default (CED PIT-4.B.2). Double the third or fifth only if it produces better voice leading or you need to avoid doubling a tendency tone. Never double the leading-tone (or a chordal seventh). Rules to remember from the CED: - Root position triads: double the root when possible; thirds/fifths are optional for good voice leading. - If you omit a tone, never omit the third of a triad; the fifth may be omitted in root-position sevenths (but double the root if you do). - In 6/4 chords, always double the bass. - All inverted triads must be complete (include all chord tones). On the AP exam you’ll apply these in part-writing/figured-bass tasks (Free-response Q5)—practice following these conventions and checking for doubled leading tones or unresolved sevenths. For a quick refresher, see the SATB voice-leading study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-4/satb-voice-leading/study-guide/c71tSuvM22gVBJGNiw1V) and try practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/music-theory).
I don't understand voice leading - can someone explain what it means in simple terms?
Voice leading just means how individual musical lines (soprano, alto, tenor, bass—SATB) move from one note to the next so the harmony sounds smooth and voices stay independent. In AP terms you’ll apply 18th-century rules: spell chords correctly, follow doubling conventions (usually double the root), keep upper-voice spacing ≤ an octave, avoid parallel 5ths/8ves and overlaps/crossings, prefer contrary motion in outer voices, and resolve leading-tones and sevenths correctly. These are exactly what the part-writing/free-response questions test (realizing figured bass and Roman-numeral progressions). Practice spotting hidden/direct fifths, voice crossing, and bad doublings—they’re common errors on the exam. For a focused review, see the Topic 4.2 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-4/satb-voice-leading/study-guide/c71tSuvM22gVBJGNiw1V) and drill part-writing problems at (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/music-theory). If you want, tell me a specific rule you’re stuck on and I’ll give a quick example.
What are the rules for spacing between voices in SATB chord progressions?
Keep it short: spacing rules control clarity and independence of the parts. - Adjacent upper voices (S–A, A–T) should be no more than an octave apart; the bass may be more than an octave from the tenor. (CED PIT-4.C.4) - Don’t cross voices or allow overlapping (a voice mustn’t move past an adjacent voice’s previous pitch). That preserves each part’s position. (CED PIT-4.C.2) - Vary motion of outer voices and avoid more than three consecutive harmonic thirds or sixths between any pair of voices. (CED PIT-4.C.1) - Maintain doubling conventions when spacing (usually double the root; never double tendency tones). Bad doubling can force awkward spacing. (CED PIT-4.B.2) - Watch spacing when approaching perfect intervals: avoid hidden/direct 5ths or 8ves in outer voices (similar motion into a perfect interval is OK only if the upper voice moves by step). (CED PIT-4.C.2) For examples and practice, check the SATB voice-leading study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-4/satb-voice-leading/study-guide/c71tSuvM22gVBJGNiw1V), the Unit 4 overview (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-4), and tons of practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/music-theory).
How do I avoid parallel fifths and octaves when writing voice leading exercises?
Short answer: always watch the interval relationships between pairs of voices from one chord to the next. Parallel 5ths/octaves are consecutive perfect 5ths or octaves between the same two voices (including beat-to-beat or contrary-motion cases) and are unacceptable on the AP exam (see DCVLE rules in the CED). Avoid them by: - Checking every pair of voices for consecutive perfect intervals. - Using contrary or oblique motion for outer voices when you need a perfect interval next—avoid similar motion into a P5/P8 unless the upper voice moves by step (that exception is in the CED). - Filling the harmony so voices can move by step where possible (lead tones and sevenths resolve by step). - Doubling the root in triads when voice-leading allows so you don’t force awkward leaps that create parallels (CED PIT-4.B). - Keeping soprano/alto/tenor spacing within an octave and avoiding overlaps (PIT-4.C). For more examples and practice, see the Topic 4.2 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-4/satb-voice-leading/study-guide/c71tSuvM22gVBJGNiw1V) and try part-writing problems on the practice page (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/music-theory).
What does it mean when voices "cross over" each other and why is that bad?
"Voices cross over" (crossed voices) means two parts swap their normal vertical order—e.g., the soprano ends up below the alto or the bass sings above the tenor. It violates the rule that each line should stay in its relative pitch position to keep independence and clear texture (CED PIT-4.C.2). Crossed voices make lines hard to follow and often create awkward leaps or bad doublings. On the AP exam this is a voice-leading error: crossed voices are listed in the DCVLE and will cost you points in part-writing (see scoring rules for Question 5). Overlapping voices (when one voice moves past another’s previous pitch) is a separate, also-unacceptable error. For practice, review Topic 4.2 on Fiveable (study guide: https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-4/satb-voice-leading/study-guide/c71tSuvM22gVBJGNiw1V) and try problems from the Unit 4 practice set (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/music-theory) to spot and fix crossings.
I'm confused about doubling rules - when can I double the third or fifth instead of the root?
Short answer: default to doubling the root, but double the 3rd or 5th when voice leading requires it and you never double tendency tones (leading-tone or chordal 7th). Why and when: - Always try to double the root of a triad when voice leading allows (CED PIT-4.B.2). - Double the 3rd or 5th only if it produces better voice leading (e.g., to avoid parallel 5ths/octaves, keep each part in range, or retain important soprano line). - Never double the leading-tone or the chordal seventh. - For root-position V7 if you omit the 5th, double the root; after a complete root V7, a I can be voiced with three roots + a third (no fifth). - In 6/4 chords, always double the bass. On the exam: part-writing/five-voice realization tasks expect these conventions (see PIT-4.B and FRQ scoring notes). For more examples and practice, check the Topic 4.2 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-4/satb-voice-leading/study-guide/c71tSuvM22gVBJGNiw1V) and the practice bank (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/music-theory).
How do I write proper voice leading from V7 to I without making mistakes?
Think of V7 → I as two rulesets: chord spelling/doubling (PIT-4.B) + how tendency tones resolve (PIT-4.C/4.D). Practical steps: 1. Spell V7 completely (root, 3rd, 5th, 7th) and include accidentals (CED PIT-4.B.1). 2. Resolve tendency tones: leading tone (3rd of V) goes up to tonic; the chordal 7th goes down by step (CED PIT-4.B.2 & PIT-4.C.2). Put these in inner voices if possible to avoid direct motion in outer voices. 3. Double only non-tendency tones. In V7 don’t double the leading tone or the 7th; after V7→I it’s common to have tonic triad with three roots + a third (no fifth) if voice leading allows (CED PIT-4.B.2). 4. Avoid parallels and hidden/direct fifths/octaves between outer voices: use contrary/oblique motion or ensure the upper voice moves by step if you use similar motion (CED PIT-4.C.1–2). 5. Keep spacing: adjacent upper voices ≤ octave (CED PIT-4.C.3–4). No voice crossing/overlap. On the AP part-writing task, you’ll be checked for correct spelling, doubling, and proper resolution of the 7th and leading tone (see scoring rubric). For more examples and practice, see the SATB voice-leading study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-4/satb-voice-leading/study-guide/c71tSuvM22gVBJGNiw1V) and lots of practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/music-theory).
What's the difference between direct fifths and parallel fifths in four-part writing?
Parallel fifths: two voices move in the same direction by the same interval class and produce a perfect fifth on two consecutive beats (or immediately consecutive chords). In four-part SATB this is forbidden because it destroys independence between voices (CED: PIT-4.C.2; DCVLE #1–2). Direct (or hidden) fifths: outer voices move in similar motion to a perfect fifth or octave, but one voice moves by step while the other leaps. If the upper voice moves by step, a hidden fifth/octave can be acceptable; if the lower voice leaps, it’s considered a direct fifth/octave and is usually unacceptable (CED: PIT-4.C.2; DCVLE #5–6). Quick rule: avoid consecutive perfect fifths (parallel) always; avoid similar motion to a perfect interval in the outer voices when that motion involves skips (direct/hidden) unless the step is in the soprano and context allows. For more examples and practice problems, check the Topic 4.2 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-4/satb-voice-leading/study-guide/c71tSuvM22gVBJGNiw1V) and thousands of practice items (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/music-theory).
Can someone explain what overlapping voices means and how to avoid it?
Overlapping voices means two parts swap their relative pitch order between successive chord tones: the lower voice moves to a pitch higher than the previous pitch of the upper voice (or the upper voice moves below the previous pitch of the lower voice). The CED calls this unacceptable because it blurs voice independence (PIT-4.C.2 and the DCVLE definitions). How to avoid it: - Always check each voice against the previous notes of adjacent voices before you finalize a chord. - Keep soprano > alto > tenor > bass in pitch order at each moment. - Prefer stepwise motion for inner voices and resolve big leaps by filling with contrary or oblique motion. - If a desired melodic line would cause overlap, alter an octave or shift an inner part by an octave, or double a different chord tone to preserve spacing. - In chorale-style writing, follow spacing rules (no more than an octave between adjacent upper parts) so overlaps are less likely. For more practice and clear examples, see the Topic 4.2 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-4/satb-voice-leading/study-guide/c71tSuvM22gVBJGNiw1V) and try problems at (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/music-theory).
How do I space chords correctly between bass and upper voices in SATB texture?
Keep upper three voices close: adjacent soprano–alto and alto–tenor may be at most an octave apart; the bass may be more than an octave from the tenor. Avoid crossing or overlapping voices (no voice moves past its neighbor’s previous pitch). Double the root of triads when voice leading allows; never double the leading tone or a chordal seventh. Inverted triads must include all chord tones; in root position you may omit the 5th. Vary outer-voice motion (use contrary or oblique rather than repeated similar motion) and avoid consecutive parallel fifths/octaves or hidden/direct fifths/octaves in outer voices—if outer voices move similarly into a perfect interval, the soprano should move by step. These spacing and doubling rules are exactly what AP asks you to follow on part-writing/fcgd-bass free-response tasks (Question 5). For a step-by-step refresher see the Topic 4.2 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-4/satb-voice-leading/study-guide/c71tSuvM22gVBJGNiw1V) and try practice problems at (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/music-theory).
I don't understand why we double the bass note in 6/4 chords - help?
Short answer: because the CED says so—in a 6/4 (second-inversion) triad you should always double the bass. (See PIT-4.B.2.) Why that rule makes musical sense: - A 6/4 is structurally unstable: the bass is the lowest, most grounding pitch, so doubling it gives the chord more stability and clearer sonority. - Doubling other chord members can create problems—you might accidentally double a tendency tone (leading-tone) or weaken voice leading. The CED’s general doubling rule is “always double non-tendency tones,” and in a 6/4 the safest, most conventional choice is the bass. - Practically, in cadential 6/4s (I6/4 → V) the doubled bass helps connect the tonic sonority to the dominant and preserves good spacing and outer-voice motion, which the exam tests in part-writing-from-figured-bass items. If you want more examples and practice, check the Topic 4.2 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-4/satb-voice-leading/study-guide/c71tSuvM22gVBJGNiw1V) and the unit practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/music-theory).
What are the voice leading rules for first inversion chords in 18th-century style?
When you write or analyze first-inversion triads (6) in 18th-century style follow the CED conventions: spell the triad completely (all three chord tones present) and avoid doubling tendency tones (leading tone or chordal 7th). Doubling choices: prefer doubling a non-tendency tone (root or fifth) when voice leading allows—doubling the root is common, but doubling the soprano (melodic tone) is also fine; never double the leading tone. Maintain correct spacing (upper parts ≤ octave; bass can be > octave from tenor) and avoid voice crossing/overlap. Apply standard motion rules between voices: vary outer-voice motion, avoid parallel 5ths/8ves and unacceptable hidden/direct 5ths/8ves, and resolve dissonances (e.g., sevenths) by step. On the AP exam you’ll use these rules in part-writing from figured bass and Roman-numeral tasks (see Topic 4.2 study guide for examples: https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-4/satb-voice-leading/study-guide/c71tSuvM22gVBJGNiw1V). For extra practice try the unit problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/music-theory).
How far apart can adjacent upper voices be in four-part harmony writing?
In four-part (SATB) writing the rule is simple: adjacent upper voices (soprano–alto and alto–tenor) should be no more than an octave apart. You may spread chord tones wider between those upper parts up to an octave, but not beyond. The bass, however, can be more than an octave away from the tenor. This is the AP spacing convention (see PIT-4.C.4 in the CED) and it’s tested on part-writing and figured-bass free responses. Follow this when you realize chords so your voicings stay idiomatic and avoid scoring penalties for “more than one octave between adjacent upper parts” on the exam. For a quick review, check the Topic 4.2 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-4/satb-voice-leading/study-guide/c71tSuvM22gVBJGNiw1V) and try practice problems at (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/music-theory).
Why do my SATB progressions always sound wrong even when I follow the doubling rules?
Doubling alone won’t make a chorale sound right—most “wrong” progressions come from voice-leading errors, spacing, or how you handle tendency tones. Quick checklist to fix it: - Check parallels and hidden/direct fifths/octaves in outer voices—AP penalizes those (CED PIT-4.C.1). - Resolve the leading tone and chordal sevenths by step to tonic (CED PIT-4.B.2/PIT-4.C.2). - Avoid voice crossing/overlap and keep upper-voice spacing ≤ octave (CED PIT-4.C.4). - Mind melodic shape: each voice should move singably (small leaps, good stepwise motion). - Inverteds must include all chord tones; follow 6/4 and V7 doubling rules (CED PIT-4.B.3, PIT-4.D.1). - Watch nonchord tones (suspensions, passing tones)—don’t treat them like chord members. For exam-style practice, run your chorales against the AP part-writing rules and score rubrics in the CED, then drill examples (see the Topic 4.2 study guide: https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-4/satb-voice-leading/study-guide/c71tSuvM22gVBJGNiw1V). For lots of timed practice problems, use Fiveable’s practice bank (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/music-theory).