When talking about rhythm, there are some terms that can help us describe specific features in music.
Syncopation and Polyrhythms
Syncopation is a rhythmic technique that involves shifting the accent of the music from its expected or normal accent pattern to a weak or off-beat rhythm. When we talk about syncopation, we are hearing the disruption of the established beat.This sometimes adds a playful feel to the music. Syncopation is often used in various forms of popular and classical music, including jazz, rock, and Latin music.
One of the most common forms of syncopation involves taking a normally accented note and placing it on a weaker or off-beat rhythm. For example, a typically accented note might occur on the first beat of a measure, but in syncopation, it might be placed on the off-beat between the first and second beats. For example, if the main beats are on 1, 2, 3 or 4, syncopation might be a 16th note ahead of each of those beats.
Polyrhythms are rhythms in which the voices subdivide the beat in a way that doesn’t line up. For example, a simple polyrhythm might be playing three beats against two beats or four beats against three beats. The example below is a common occurrence in music, and it requires extra dexterity if you were to play this example as a pianist, harpist, or percussionist!
Stravinsky is famous (infamous?) for using a lot of polyrhythms in his work. The polyrhythms produce “magical” and “free” textures, which is why they were used commonly in his etudes. Another good example of polyrhythms occurs in Debussy’s Arabesque No 1.
Here is an example of a 3-2 polyrhythm:
Hemiolas
A hemiola is a bit of an aural illusion. During a hemiola, the time signature stays as originally written, but the feeling is as if the meter has shifted. For example, in a 2/4 meter, if there are suddenly three notes every measure, the feeling is as if the meter has changed to 3/4 or 3/8 in a different tempo, but when reading the music, the notes are still aligned in a 2/4 bar.
The two different rhythmic structures that create a hemiola can either be heard one after the other or at the same time, with the latter forming an example of a polyrhythm known as a "two-against-three" pattern.
There are two other common ways a hemiola can present in music. First, if we are in compound duple meter (e.g. 6/8 time) and we include measures that articulate a simple triple meter (e.g. ¾ time) then we will hear a hemiola. This is because 6/8 time has two “big beats,” and ¾ time has three “big beats”, so in this method, we delay the strong beat in a hemiola until the second beat of a measure in 6/8 time.
Second, if we accent the third beat of triple meter, so we hear the beats as “Strong weak Strong” | “weak Strong weak” instead of “Strong weak weak” | “Strong weak weak”, we will have a different type of hemiola.
Just like syncopation disrupts the beat of the music, hemiolas disrupt the metrical organization of the music. The term “hemiola” is derived from the Greek word “hemi,” meaning “half,” and “ola,” meaning “a complete unit.” In other words, hemiolas are rhythmic patterns that are partially divided into two different rhythmic units. This creates a feeling of conflict between the two different rhythmic groupings, and this conflict is what gives hemiolas their unique character.
One of the most famous examples of a hemiola can be found in the final movement of Beethoven’s Ninth Symphony. In this piece, the hemiola is used to create a sense of rhythmic propulsion, and it is also used to emphasize the final cadence of the piece. The hemiola helps to bring the piece to a close and gives it a sense of conclusion and resolution.
Another example of a hemiola can be found in the third movement of Brahms’ Symphony No. 2. In this piece, the hemiola is used to create a feeling of conflict between the two different rhythms, and it is also used to create a sense of forward motion. The hemiola helps to drive the piece forward and gives it a sense of momentum.
Listen to these two pieces and see if you can find the hemiolas.
Accents
An agogic accent is a note that naturally receives more emphasis due to its extended duration, or accents that are placed in an unnatural flow of the established meter. It is a non-metric accent and occurs when a note is played longer for a longer value than the ones around it. The term "agogic" comes from the Greek word "ágogos", which means "leading" or "exciting". An agogic accent can also be used to change the perceived rhythm or meter of a piece of music, and can add a sense of forward momentum or direction.
Here is an example from Mozart - Fantasia D-moll, K. 397
Image via The Leading Tone
Notice how these notes are played for a longer duration than the ones around it. Since these are placed on strong beats, they emphasize the given meter. However, if they were played on weak beats, they would alter our perception of the meter.
Other types of accent markings in music include accents, marcatos, staccatos, staccatissimos, and tenutos. Accents, which are denoted by a horizontal wedge above a note, signify that the note should be played more loudly and in a more pronounced manner than the notes around it. This marking is also sometimes denoted as a sforzando, notated as “sfz.” Marcatos are just like accent marks, although they usually occur when multiple notes in a row should be accented.
Staccatos and staccatissimos mean to play the note shorter than the written value. Staccatos don’t always mean to play the note short, just shorter than the written value so that there is separation between the notes. You usually interpret how short to play staccatos based on the musical context. Staccatissimos, on the other hand, do mean that you should play the note really short.
Finally, tenuto markings mean to play the notes at full length, but separated.
Here are the traditional markings for these types of accents, although you should note that the markings vary widely between composers and time periods, and even if composers use the same markings, they might mean different things based on context.
From left to right, they are: staccato, staccatissimo, marcato, accent, and tenuto.
Image via Study.com
A fermata is a symbol placed over a note or rest that indicates that it is to be held longer than its normal duration. The length of the hold is at the discretion of the performer, but it is usually longer than the notated value. It is used to add emphasis or to bring attention to a particular section of a piece. A fermata is often used to allow the performer to take a breath, regroup, or make a dramatic pause. The symbol looks like an inverted semi-circle that is placed above or below the note or rest to be prolonged.
You’ll usually find fermatas at the end of pieces or in between sections of pieces. Here's what a fermata looks like:
Meter Types
An anacrusis is the same thing as a pickup. It refers to the notes that start a phrase before the first downbeat. It refers to a group of notes that occur before the first strong beat of a bar or phrase, creating an anticipatory effect and helping to establish the rhythm and pulse of the piece. Anacrusis can be used to create tension and energy, or to add a sense of momentum to the music. An anacrusis usually doesn’t affect the listener’s perception of the rhythm
Asymmetrical and Irregular Meters
When examining types of meter in music, we may come across meters such as 5/8 or 7/8. The subdivisions of these meters are not symmetrical, meaning we count them in groups of either two or three groups of 8th notes. In 5/8 meter, we can have either a two-three or three-two pulse. In 7/8, we could feel the pulse in two-three-two, two-two-three, or three-two-two. These are examples of asymmetrical or irregular meter.
There are many pieces written in asymmetrical meter in classical music, although they only really emerged in the 20th century. Here are a few examples:
- Igor Stravinsky's Rite of Spring
- Béla Bartók's Mikrokosmos
- Arnold Schoenberg's Five Pieces for Orchestra
- Paul Hindemith's Mathis der Maler
- Claude Debussy's Prelude to the Afternoon of a Faun
- Edgard Varèse's Ionisation
- Steve Reich's Music for 18 Musicians
- Philip Glass's Music with Changing Parts
Sometimes, music may use time signatures that shift often, such as a measure of 3/4 followed by a measure of 2/4. This is known as changing or mixed meter. However, this is not a common occurrence – usually, composers will just imply the mixed meter by using hemiolas or other rhythmic devices.
🦜 Polly wants a progress tracker: What are the ways to subdivide a piece in 5/4 time? Does it makes a different if the tempo were allegro versus largo?
Frequently Asked Questions
What's the difference between syncopation and polyrhythm?
Syncopation and polyrhythm both disrupt a steady meter, but they do it in different ways. Syncopation shifts or places an accent on metrically weak beats or subdivisions—think of stressing the “and” of a beat or a weak beat in 4/4. It’s still one pulse/meter, just with unexpected accents. Polyrhythm (or cross-rhythm) layers two or more independent rhythmic patterns simultaneously that don’t derive from the same subdivision—e.g., 3 against 2—so you actually hear two conflicting rhythmic grids at once. Hemiola is a common polyrhythmic case (3:2) and can occur successively or simultaneously. On the AP exam you’ll be asked to identify these in performed and notated music (CED RHY-3.A). For quick review, see the Topic 2.13 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-2/rhythmic-devices/study-guide/BsYmCkLU8k7GNBhZ2zxe) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/music-theory).
How do I identify hemiola when I'm listening to music?
Hemiola = a 3:2 shift in how beats are grouped. When you’re listening, first find the steady subdivision (usually the eighth-note pulse). Then try these quick checks: - Tap a steady subdivision (e.g., eighths in 6/8). If accents or chord changes start grouping those subdivisions into three strong beats every two beats (e.g., two measures of 3/4 feeling inside 6/8), you’re hearing a hemiola (three notes in the time of two). - Listen for a pattern of accents that changes from the established meter (Strong-weak-weak → Strong-weak—Strong-weak)—that alternating accent pattern is a classic hemiola. - Distinguish successive (bars re-accented) vs simultaneous (two-against-three polyrhythm) by checking whether the whole ensemble shifts feel or one part keeps the original meter. On the AP exam you’ll need to describe hemiola in performed stimuli (RHY-3.A.1). For more examples and practice, see the Topic 2.13 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-2/rhythmic-devices/study-guide/BsYmCkLU8k7GNBhZ2zxe) and try practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/music-theory).
I don't understand what a cross-rhythm is - can someone explain it simply?
A cross-rhythm (or polyrhythm) is when two or more independent rhythmic patterns happen at the same time but don’t fit the same subdivision—they don’t “derive from one another” (CED RHY-3.A.1). The simplest example is two-against-three (a 3:2 polyrhythm): one voice plays three equal notes in the same span where another plays two. Hemiola is a related idea: three notes taking the time of two (or vice versa), and when heard simultaneously it’s a polyrhythm. How to spot one: look for conflicting groupings (triplets vs. duplets, 3 eighths against 2 quarter-note pulses) or hear one part accenting a different pulse than the meter. On the exam you might need to identify this in recorded or notated music (RHY-3.A and RHY-1.E). Practice by clapping one pattern while tapping the other. For a focused review, see the Topic 2.13 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-2/rhythmic-devices/study-guide/BsYmCkLU8k7GNBhZ2zxe) and more practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/music-theory).
What does agogic accent mean and how is it different from regular accents?
An agogic accent is emphasis created by making a note longer than the surrounding notes—the note “sticks out” because of duration, not because it’s louder or on a strong beat. The CED calls this out as a rhythmic device: “a note that naturally receives more emphasis due to its extended (or longer) duration” (RHY-3.A.2). How it differs from regular (metrical or dynamic) accents: - Metrical accent = emphasis from the meter (strong beats like downbeats). - Dynamic accent = emphasis from louder articulation. - Agogic accent = emphasis from lengthening a note (e.g., holding a note through the next weak beat, a tied note, or a fermata). On the AP exam you may need to identify agogic accents in performed or notated music (RHY-3.A). Practice spotting them by looking for or listening to notes held longer than their neighbors. For more examples, check the Topic 2.13 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-2/rhythmic-devices/study-guide/BsYmCkLU8k7GNBhZ2zxe) and try practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/music-theory).
How do I know if a song has irregular meter or if I'm just counting wrong?
Start by finding a steady subdivision (tap a steady eighth- or sixteenth-note pulse). If your taps line up with most notes but accents fall in a repeating pattern that doesn’t match your original counting, the piece probably has an irregular or changing meter (asymmetrical meter, mixed meter, or shifting groupings like 5/8, 7/8, or measures switching 3/4 → 4/4). If you feel two conflicting patterns at once (e.g., three against two), that’s cross-rhythm/polyrhythm or hemiola, not a counting mistake. Practical steps: - Clap the subdivision while the recording plays; see where strong beats land. - Listen for recurring accent groups (3+2 vs 2+3 in 5/8). - Check notation (if available) for time-signature changes or irregular meters. - Use a metronome set to the subdivision to confirm a stable pulse. AP-relevant: RHY-1.E and RHY-3.A expect you to identify borrowed divisions, hemiola, cross-rhythms, and mixed/irregular meters by listening or score. Practice these skills on Fiveable’s Topic 2.13 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-2/rhythmic-devices/study-guide/BsYmCkLU8k7GNBhZ2zxe) and the Unit 2 overview (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-2). For drills, try the practice set (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/music-theory).
What materials do I need to practice identifying rhythmic devices for my AP exam?
You need only a few focused tools to practice identifying rhythmic devices the way AP asks (aural and notated): - Notated examples: printed scores or screenshots (measures with rhythms, mixed time signatures, hemiolas, 5/8, etc.) and blank staff paper to mark accents and label devices. - Aural sources: recordings or MIDI files you can loop (so you can hear syncopation, cross-rhythms, hemiolas, triplets/duplets, anacruses, fermatas, agogic accents). Practice with repeatable clips because Section I, Part A uses timed recordings. - A metronome (to confirm pulse and detect displaced accents), a piano or keyboard (to tap/play rhythms), and a simple DAW or audio player to slow/loop passages. - Flashcards or a checklist of CED keywords (syncopation, cross-rhythm/polyrhythm, hemiola, borrowed divisions/triplets/duplets, irregular divisions, asymmetrical/mixed meter, anacrusis, agogic accent, fermata). - Practice Qs: use the Topic 2.13 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-2/rhythmic-devices/study-guide/BsYmCkLU8k7GNBhZ2zxe) and the unit overview (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-2). For lots of drills (1000+ problems) try Fiveable practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/music-theory). Tip: practice both reading and listening—AP tests both notated and performed rhythm tasks—so alternate score analysis with blind listening drills.
Can someone explain triplets vs duplets in a way that actually makes sense?
Think of triplets and duplets as “borrowed divisions”—you temporarily divide a beat differently than the meter expects (CED: RHY-1.E). In simple meter (2 or 4), a triplet means three equal notes take the time normally held by two equal notes (3:2 ratio). In compound meter (6/8), a duplet is the opposite: two notes fit into the time normally held by three. That’s how hemiola or “three-against-two” ideas show up: three equal notes across the span of two, or two across three. On the AP exam you should be able to both hear and read these (RHY-3.A, RHY-1.E). Tip: count the underlying pulse, then group the subdivided notes to see whether they’re replacing two or three divisions. For more practice and examples, see the Topic 2.13 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-2/rhythmic-devices/study-guide/BsYmCkLU8k7GNBhZ2zxe) and try practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/music-theory).
How do I write about rhythmic devices in my portfolio analysis without sounding basic?
Don't write "there's syncopation here" and leave it at that. Be specific: name the device using CED terms (syncopation, hemiola, two-against-three polyrhythm, borrowed division, anacrusis, agogic accent, fermata), give exact locations (measure numbers or beats), describe how it alters the established pulse or meter (e.g., "eighth-note pulse maintained while accents shift into a 3:2 hemiola across mm. 12–13"), and say what it does musically (e.g., "creates forward propulsion / destabilizes phrase ending / highlights the downbeat"). When possible quantify: how many measures, which voices, and whether it’s successive or simultaneous (RHY-3.A, RHY-1.E). Tie observations to exam skills: this is the kind of detail AP wants in aural/notated analysis (Skill Categories 1 & 2). For phrasing on the portfolio, use short analytic sentences: label → location → rhythmic effect → expressive consequence. For extra practice, see the Topic 2.13 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-2/rhythmic-devices/study-guide/BsYmCkLU8k7GNBhZ2zxe) and hundreds of practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/music-theory).
What's the difference between changing meter and mixed meter?
Short answer: in AP Music Theory they’re closely related, but think of the nuance like this—changing meter refers broadly to any music where the notated time signature shifts from measure to measure (e.g., 3/4 → 4/4 → 5/8), creating irregular or asymmetrical meter patterns. Mixed meter usually implies a deliberate, recurring pattern of different meters that function as a single larger pulse group (for example, an alternating 3/4 + 2/4 that repeats), or a consistent sequence of measures that produces an irregular meter type. Why it matters for the exam: RHY-1.E in the CED asks you to identify irregular beat grouping and meter shifts (changing/mixed meter) in both performed and notated music, so listen for where accents or beat grouping change and check time signatures in the score. For quick review see the Topic 2.13 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-2/rhythmic-devices/study-guide/BsYmCkLU8k7GNBhZ2zxe) and practice lots of examples (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/music-theory).
I'm confused about anacrusis - is it the same thing as a pickup note?
Short answer: yes—an anacrusis is the same thing as a pickup. The CED even defines anacrusis (or pickup) as rhythmic material that begins before the first downbeat of a phrase (RHY-3.A.2). Quick details that matter for the AP exam: it can be one note or several notes, so it’s not limited to a single “pickup note.” In notation it usually appears as an incomplete measure at the start; that missing beat(s) are often added to the final measure so the whole piece balances. You’ll see anacrusis on aural and written items (melodic dictation, sight-singing, and score analysis), so be ready to count the offbeat start and place barlines correctly. For a quick review, check the Topic 2.13 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-2/rhythmic-devices/study-guide/BsYmCkLU8k7GNBhZ2zxe) and try practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/music-theory).
How do I identify asymmetrical meters when listening to performed music?
Listen for how beats are grouped, not just the time signature. Asymmetrical meters (like 5/8, 7/8) have unequal beat-groupings—e.g., 5/8 = 3+2 or 2+3; 7/8 = 2+2+3, etc. To ID them while listening: - Find the smallest steady pulse (division) and tap it (eighths or quarter-note pulse). - Accent mentally where each measure starts by listening for recurring strong beats or patterns of strong+weak; uneven groupings will repeat (3+2, 2+3, 2+2+3). - Clap or count aloud using those groupings (“ONE-two-three ONE-two,” etc.) to see which fit the music. - Watch for changing/mixed meter when the grouping pattern shifts measure to measure. Borrowed divisions (triplets/duplets) can disguise the feel—keep the underlying pulse. On the AP exam, aural questions in Section I, Part A test this listening skill, so practice with short excerpts (you can use the Topic 2.13 study guide on Fiveable for examples) (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-2/rhythmic-devices/study-guide/BsYmCkLU8k7GNBhZ2zxe). For more drills, try the unit practice sets (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-2) or the 1000+ practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/music-theory).
What does a fermata actually do to the rhythm and how long should I hold it?
A fermata (the little arc with a dot) means “hold this note or rest longer than its notated value.” In AP terms it’s one of the rhythmic devices you should be able to identify (RHY-3.A.2). The exact length isn’t fixed: it’s expressive and depends on style, phrase, and conductor. Practically, in solo or classroom practice you can treat it as about 1.5–2 times the written value or hold until a clear cue—if an ensemble is playing, follow the conductor. On the exam, expect a fermata to indicate an extended duration; don’t try to force a precise beat unless the stimulus/auditor gives one. For practice, mark fermatas in your dictation and sight-singing work so you’re comfortable with displaced/meter-breaking lengths. Review the Topic 2.13 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-2/rhythmic-devices/study-guide/BsYmCkLU8k7GNBhZ2zxe) and use the practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/music-theory) to hear and notate fermatas in context.
How do I show that I understand polyrhythm in my composition project?
To show you understand polyrhythm in your composition, do three things clearly in both score and a short note (or audio): 1. Create two (or more) independent rhythmic patterns that don’t derive from the same meter—e.g., an ostinato of steady eighth-note triplets against a pulse of even duple eighths (two-against-three/hemiola example). Notate each voice on its own staff or layer and label the ratio (3:2, 4:3, etc.). 2. Show how the pulses align: draw or include a small alignment grid or bracket over a measure that marks the common subdivision where they meet (this proves they’re simultaneous, not successive). 3. Explain briefly in your program note which AP concepts you used (polyrhythm/cross-rhythm, borrowed divisions/triplets) and point to the measure(s) where they occur. This meets RHY-3.A and RHY-1.E expectations (identify/ notate polyrhythms and irregular divisions). For examples and quick review, check the Topic 2.13 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-2/rhythmic-devices/study-guide/BsYmCkLU8k7GNBhZ2zxe) and use practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/music-theory) to hear and notate similar devices.
What's a "two-against-three" polyrhythm and how do I recognize it?
A "two-against-three" polyrhythm (a type of cross-rhythm/hemiola) is when one voice groups the same span of time into two equal beats while another voice groups it into three equal beats—so three notes in one part happen at the same time as two notes in the other. You can recognize it by lining up the pulses: e.g., in the space of two quarter notes one voice plays two quarter-note pulses while the other plays three quarter-note triplets (a 3:2 ratio). Notated clues: simultaneous tuplet markings (triplets vs. duplets), different beaming, or one part written in 3/4 against 2/4 feel. Aural clues: you’ll hear competing accents (strong beats falling in different places). The CED treats simultaneous hemiola/polyrhythm as "two-against-three" (RHY-3.A.1); practice identifying these in both performed and notated stimuli for the AP exam (listen for conflicting beat groupings). For more review, check the Topic 2.13 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-2/rhythmic-devices/study-guide/BsYmCkLU8k7GNBhZ2zxe), the Unit 2 overview (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-2), and try practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/music-theory).
I don't get how hemiola creates a 3 to 2 ratio - help?
Think of hemiola as a way of grouping the same steady pulse differently so three beats fit into the space of two (a 3:2 ratio). Concrete: imagine a constant eighth-note pulse. In 6/8 you normally group those eighths as two dotted-quarter beats (each = 3 eighths)—so the measure feels like 2 beats. A hemiola re-accentuates those same eighths so you hear three quarter-note beats instead (each quarter = 2 eighths) across the same time span. So three equal-sounding beats are occupying the time you’d usually feel as two bigger beats—that’s 3 against 2. Another simple math example: three quarter-note triplets can replace two regular quarter notes in the same time—again 3:2. Hemiola can occur successively (like 6/8 → 3/4 feel) or simultaneously as a two-against-three polyrhythm (CED RHY-3.A.1). For more examples and practice, see the Topic 2.13 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-2/rhythmic-devices/study-guide/BsYmCkLU8k7GNBhZ2zxe) and unit review (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-2). Practice problems are at (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/music-theory).