Continuing with expressive elements, other ways to perform music are indicated by dynamic markings and articulation. We use dynamics and articulation to make music sound musical -- it adds interest, and it allows us to be expressive in our music. When you are playing music, dynamics and articulation are sometimes implied. The composer might not tell you to be loud or soft or connected or short, but based on context clues, you're able to figure this out.
This is especially true in older classical pieces, like Bach, Handel, and Mozart. Before music scores started being printed and published, it was assumed that the pieces would mostly be played by the composers themselves, so there was really no need to add dynamic and articulation markings. However, after the emergence of large music publishing agencies, composers started being more intentional about adding these markings.
Dynamics
Dynamic markings show how loud or soft the music ought to be played. Still using Italian 🇮🇹 terms, here is the list of dynamics with their accompanying abbreviations, from softest to loudest:
It is important to understand that dynamics are all relative. A forte in the first movement of Moonlight Sonata is a big deal! It is really loud! A forte in the third movement is Moonlight Sonata isn't so loud. Also, among different composers, forte and piano mean different things. You should use other context clues to determine the actual decibel level of loudness that you should play a piece.
Changes in dynamics can be shown with the following symbols:
Sometimes, when they are back to back, they are also called hairpins. The < symbol on the left is a BOLD_PLACEHOLDER_3, which means to increase the volume over the space indicated, and the > symbol on the right is the BOLD_PLACEHOLDER_4, which means to decrease the volume. Sometimes, decrescendos are called diminuendos, and abbreviated "dim." on a score.
When an immediate change in volume is desired, a composer might write BOLD_PLACEHOLDER_6, which means suddenly. Sometimes, you won't see the word "subito," but you will see the dynamic change quickly from forte to piano or from piano to forte without a crescendo or a diminuendo. This would also be considered subito (you might say subito piano for suddenly soft, and subito forte for suddenly loud).
An isolated dynamic accent can be written with BOLD_PLACEHOLDER_7 or BOLD_PLACEHOLDER_8, which stands for BOLD_PLACEHOLDER_9. Sforzando is a dynamic marking that indicates a sudden, strong accent. It is usually written above the staff, and it indicates that the music should be played with a lot of emphasis or force. The term "sforzando" comes from the Italian word "sforzare," which means "to force" or "to strain."
A sforzando accent is often used to add drama or emphasis to a particular note or chord. It can be used to create a sudden, unexpected change in volume or to bring attention to a particular part of the music. When a sforzando accent is written into the music, the performer should try to create a strong, forceful sound, often by playing the note louder than the surrounding notes and using a more forceful technique.
Sforzando accents can be indicated in a variety of ways, including with the abbreviation sfz, a > symbol above the note, or a + symbol above the note. Sforzandos usually should not be ignored, even if the performer doesn't like them. Sforzandos can also tell you
Note: you may also find the occasion fff or pppp in some music. Can you sing "pianississississimo"?
Articulation
Composers may also want their music to be played with certain articulation. Articulation refers to the way that individual notes are played or sung in a piece of music. It can affect the phrasing, tempo, and overall character of the music, and it is an important aspect of musical expression. Sometimes articulation is also called an attack. Here are some common articulation names and their definitions:
Staccato articulation is indicated by a dot above or below the notes. It means that the notes should be played or sung shorter and separated, with a clear gap of silence between each note. However, this does not necessarily mean short notes. Sometimes, staccato notes are intended to be longer, but they will still have a pronounced gap between them.
Tenuto articulation is indicated by a straight line above or below the notes. It means that the notes should be played or sung with their full duration and with a slight emphasis. Sometimes, there will also be a small gap between tenuto notes, depending on the piece.
Legato articulation is indicated by a slur (a curved line) above or below the notes. It means that the notes should be played or sung smoothly and connected, without any separation between them. On a wind instrument, this means that you will not tongue the notes under the slur. For a string instrument, this means that you use the same direction of one bowing, and for piano/harp/percussion, it means to have a very connected line.
Sometimes, there will be a big slur-looking thing in musical pieces to indicate phrasing. This is not actually a slur, and it doesn't necessarily mean to play the notes connected. Instead, it tells you that this big section is one phrase, and it should be articulated like one musical sentence. We will learn more about phrasing in future chapters.
The reason why we use the same markings for phrasing and legato is that phrases sound sound like connected musical ideas, even if every single note isn't connected. You can tell whether something is a legato marking or a phrase depending on the piece and context. If there is a staccato inside of the line, then it probably isn't a slur. Also, if it is a big section, and these big "slurs" are happening at regular intervals, you can assume that these aren't real legato markings. Instead, they are phrases.
You also shouldn't confuse slurs with ties, which tell you to hold the same note. If two or more of all the same note are connected by a slur, then we might assume that this is a tie.
Marcato indicates that the notes should be played or sung with strong emphasis and a clear, detached sound. It is usually indicated in music notation by a small, triangular arrowhead above or below the notes, or by the abbreviation "mar." It might also be written like a staccato note in the shape of a triangle. Sometimes, there will be accents above the notes (which look like mini crescendos above the notes). This is also an indication to play the notes marcato, but we usually just call the markings accents.
Marcato articulation is often used to give a sense of emphasis or punctuation to the music. It is used to help bring out certain notes or phrases and to give them a more prominent and distinct character. When a marcato articulation is indicated in the music, the performer should try to create a strong, clear, and slightly accented sound, often by playing the notes louder and with a more forceful technique.
This is what the above sounds like back-to-back:
Listen to all the common articulations!
While this music was performed on an oboe, a piano or string instrument might have a slightly different nuances to how each of these articulations are physically played.
Lastly, here is what a tremolo looks like. Tremolo is also called vibrato (especially for string instruments) and it is an effect produced by rapidly repeating a single note or chord. It is often indicated in music notation with a set of wavy lines above or below the notes, and it is usually played on stringed instruments, such as the violin or guitar. The speed and depth of the tremolo effect can vary depending on the desired effect and the performer's technique.
Tremolo can add expression and intensity to a piece of music and can be used to create a sense of excitement or tension. It is often used in fast, virtuosic passages to add energy and momentum to the music. In slower, more lyrical passages, it can be used to add warmth and emotion to the sound.
Tremolo is produced on stringed instruments by rapidly moving the finger that is pressing down on the string back and forth, creating a vibrating effect. On other instruments, such as the flute or voice, tremolo can be produced by rapidly repeating a single note or by quickly alternating between two nearby notes.
Tremolo is an important aspect of musical expression and can be used to add character and interest to a piece of music. It is important for the performer to carefully follow the notation and any indicated tempo markings in order to achieve the desired effect.
🦜Polly wants a progress tracker: Can you practice singing the example that you heard played by the oboe? 🎤 Or play it on an instrument? 🎺 Read along with the recording of the oboe and then practice alone by yourself so you can get the understanding of the symbols into your ear.
Frequently Asked Questions
What's the difference between forte and fortissimo in music?
Forte (f) and fortissimo (ff) are both dynamic markings that tell you how loud to play or sing—they’re just different degrees. Forte means “loud,” while fortissimo means “very loud.” Both are Italian abbreviations used in notation (f = forte, ff = fortissimo) and are part of the standard dynamic scale from pianissimo (pp) up to ff (CED DES-3.B.1). Composers can also show gradual changes with hairpins or words like crescendo/decrescendo, or sudden changes with subito. On the AP exam remember sight-singing melodies will use simple markings (e.g., forte) to support clear projection; you won’t be asked for nuanced dynamic shaping (CED DES-3.D Boundary Statement). For a quick review see the Topic 1.10 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-1/dynamics-articulation/study-guide/hYmA9fBlhEhye7XIEhOi) and try practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/music-theory).
How do I know when to sing loud or soft when sight-singing?
Look at the printed markings first—they tell you exactly when to sing loud or soft. Standard dynamics: pp, p, mp, mf, f, ff; hairpins (< >) mean gradual change (crescendo/decrescendo); subito or sf/sfz mark sudden changes or accents. In sight-singing on the AP exam, apply whatever dynamic is written and any accents (DES-3.B/3.C). If nothing’s written, prioritize pitch and rhythm: choose a moderate projection (mf) so your pitch is clear and your teacher/exam mic can hear you. The CED’s boundary notes say sight-singing examples use simple markings (e.g., forte, slur) to favor clarity, so don’t add big expressive fluctuations unless notated. For articulation: slurs = sing legato/connected; dots = short/staccato. Maintain steady tempo and continuity (DES-3.D). Need practice applying these quickly? Check the Topic 1.10 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-1/dynamics-articulation/study-guide/hYmA9fBlhEhye7XIEhOi), the Unit 1 overview (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-1), and 1,000+ practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/music-theory).
I don't understand what those hairpin symbols mean in my music - are they dynamics?
Yes—those “hairpins” are dynamics. The open hairpin (<) means crescendo (get gradually louder) and the closed hairpin (>) means decrescendo or diminuendo (get gradually softer). They’re graphic symbols for a change in dynamic level and can span a single note, a phrase, or several measures. Hairpins show relative, gradual change; sudden accents use markings like sf or sfz (sforzando) or words like subito. On scores you’ll also see Italian abbreviations (p, mf, f, etc.) and words (crescendo, decrescendo) that mean the same thing (CED DES-3.B.1). For the AP exam: sight-singing tasks only use simple dynamics/phrase slurs, so you won’t be tested on nuanced crescendos there, but you should still be able to identify hairpins in notated music (DES-3.B). For a quick review, see the Topic 1.10 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-1/dynamics-articulation/study-guide/hYmA9fBlhEhye7XIEhOi) and practice examples at (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/music-theory).
What does sforzando actually sound like and how do I perform it?
Sforzando (sf or sfz) is a sudden, strong accent—think of one sharp, very emphasized note or chord that stands out from surrounding dynamics. Sonically it’s louder and more aggressive for an instant than the current dynamic level (like a quick spike from mf to a momentary accent). To perform it: prepare more energy before the note, use a slightly stronger attack (more bow pressure or a firmer breath/strike), produce an immediate increase in volume on the marked note, then return quickly to the previous level (it’s not a sustained fortissimo unless marked). Context matters—style and instrument change exact tone (classical singers use a brighter placement; pianists use a quick, accented keystroke). On the AP exam sight-singing tasks you’ll mostly see simple dynamics (e.g., forte), but knowing sf/sfz helps ID momentary accents (CED DES-3.B and DES-3.C). Review Topic 1.10 on Fiveable (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-1/dynamics-articulation/study-guide/hYmA9fBlhEhye7XIEhOi) and get extra practice (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/music-theory).
How do I show the difference between staccato and legato when I'm singing?
Staccato vs. legato when you sing is mostly about note length and how you start/stop the sound. - Staccato: make the note short and detached—release the vowel early so the sounding portion is about 30–50% of the written value, then stop the airflow quickly. Use a light, clean onset (soft consonant or tiny glottal) and keep the vowel pure. Think “ping” rather than “hold.” Staccato dots are the usual notation. - Legato: connect notes smoothly so each pitch flows into the next. Keep steady breath support, sustain the vowel for nearly the full value (often 90–100%), and avoid re-articulating with consonants between notes. Slurs in the score show legato (or tenuto lines indicate full value). On the AP sight-singing tasks you’ll most often see slurs (legato); don’t invent dramatic articulations unless notated. For more practice and examples, check the Topic 1.10 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-1/dynamics-articulation/study-guide/hYmA9fBlhEhye7XIEhOi), Unit 1 overview (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-1), and practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/music-theory).
What materials do I need to practice sight-singing with dynamics and articulation?
Grab these basics and you’ll be set to practice sight-singing with dynamics and articulation the way the AP expects. - Staff paper and pencil (to mark dynamics, slurs, staccato, hairpins, sf/sfz). - A piano or keyboard (or a reliable tuning app) to check starting pitches and match dynamics. - A metronome for steady tempo (AP sight-singing expects a steady moderato unless marked). - Printed melodies or scores that include dynamics/articulations (practice with pp–ff, cresc./decresc., slurs, staccato). - Recording device (phone) so you can listen back for dynamic changes and articulatory clarity. - Mirror or video to watch breath/support and jaw/articulation. - Vocal warm-up routine and simple solfège or syllable system (do/re/mi or numbers) to internalize pitch. - A teacher/partner or online aural playback to model dynamic contrasts and accents. Remember AP sight-singing tasks include only simple dynamics and phrase markings, so focus on clear forte/piano, hairpins, slurs, and occasional sfz while keeping pitch and rhythm accurate. Use the Topic 1.10 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-1/dynamics-articulation/study-guide/hYmA9fBlhEhye7XIEhOi), the Unit 1 overview (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-1), and tons of practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/music-theory).
Can someone explain terraced dynamics in simple terms with examples?
Terraced dynamics = sudden, step-like changes in loudness—no gradual crescendo or decrescendo. Think: a loud passage (f) stops and the next phrase starts soft (p), or vice versa, with an abrupt contrast. It’s common in Baroque keyboard and choral music (harpsichord/organ can’t do gradual swell), so composers write blocks of loud then soft to shape form and texture. Examples: - A Baroque chorus: full ensemble plays forte, then immediately the continuo + soloists drop to piano—that’s terraced dynamics. - In keyboard music for harpsichord: one section loud, next section soft with no hairpin or “cresc.” between them. On the AP: you should be able to identify terraced dynamics by notation or by listening (DES-3.B.1). In sight-singing tasks you won’t get very subtle dynamic markings, but you may need to observe simple markings like f or p (DES-3.D.1). For a quick review, see the Topic 1.10 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-1/dynamics-articulation/study-guide/hYmA9fBlhEhye7XIEhOi). Practice more ID questions at (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/music-theory).
How do I maintain steady tempo while also doing all the dynamic changes?
Keep the tempo steady first—AP sight-singing expects a constant pulse unless a tempo change is notated. The CED explicitly says “maintain steady tempo throughout” so don’t ritard or speed up to shape dynamics (DES-3.D.1). Practical steps: pick a metronome tempo and practice the excerpt with it; subdivide beats (e.g., “1-&-a”) so your crescendos/decrescendos happen across a fixed number of pulses; mark hairpins, mf/p, and sforzando before you sing so you know where to grow or drop volume. Use changes in breath support and vowel focus (more air = louder, more closure = softer) rather than changing pulse. Practice dynamics isolated (sing same line pianissimo, then crescendo over 4 beats) and then add articulation (staccato/legato). For more targeted practice and AP-aligned tips, see the Topic 1.10 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-1/dynamics-articulation/study-guide/hYmA9fBlhEhye7XIEhOi) and try practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/music-theory).
I'm confused about the difference between accents and regular dynamics - help?
Dynamics = overall loudness levels and changes (p, mf, f, crescendo/decrescendo/hairpins, subito, terraced dynamics). They describe how loud or soft a passage is over time. Accents are momentary emphasis on a specific note or chord—so they’re a short, local increase in volume or attack. In the CED this is called a dynamic accent (e.g., sf or sfz = sforzando) and is different from a sustained dynamic level (DES-3.B.1). Articulation is how notes start/end and connect (staccato, legato/slur, tenuto, marcato). Some markings (marcato or > above a note) look like accents but refer to attack/shape as much as volume (DES-3.C.1). So: dynamics = how loud overall; accents = a single emphasized moment; articulations = how notes are shaped and connected. For AP sight-singing, expect simple dynamics/phrase slurs (DES-3.D.1). Review Topic 1.10 on Fiveable for quick examples (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-1/dynamics-articulation/study-guide/hYmA9fBlhEhye7XIEhOi) and try practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/music-theory).
What's the best way to practice articulation markings for my AP portfolio recordings?
Start by making the markings physically obvious in practice: circle dynamics (pp–ff, hairpins, subito, sforzando) and articulation (staccato, slur/legato, tenuto, marcato) on your score so you don’t miss them while performing. Practice in three passes: 1) exaggerated—overdo dynamics/articulations so you learn the shapes; 2) integrated—bring them back to musical balance while keeping contrasts clear; 3) run-throughs—full recording takes with a steady tempo (sight-singing tasks on the AP keep one tempo). Use a metronome, mark breaths/phrase endpoints, and rehearse transitions for cresc./decresc. and terraced changes so they’re reliable. Listen critically to your recordings, note inconsistent spots, and redo only those measures. For AP-specific guidance (what graders expect in sight-singing and expressive markings), see the Topic 1.10 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-1/dynamics-articulation/study-guide/hYmA9fBlhEhye7XIEhOi) and try practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/music-theory).
How do I know if I'm performing crescendo and decrescendo correctly?
You know you’re doing crescendos/decrescendos right when the change feels deliberate, even, and supports the phrase without breaking tempo or pitch accuracy. On the page you’ll see hairpins (< >) or words like crescendo/decrescendo; treat them as relative levels (mp → mf, etc.), not exact volumes (CED DES-3.B.1). Practically: start small, change volume gradually across the marked span, aim for an even “curve” (no sudden jumps unless subito or sf/sfz is written), and keep steady pulse—don’t rush the notes to get louder. For singers, use breath support; for winds/strings, adjust bow speed/air pressure. Listen back to recordings of the passage and practice with a metronome, marking exact points for small dynamic shifts. On the AP sight-singing tasks you won’t be asked for nuanced cresc/rit. For more on symbols and practice tips, check the Topic 1.10 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-1/dynamics-articulation/study-guide/hYmA9fBlhEhye7XIEhOi) and extra practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/music-theory).
What does tremolo mean and how is it different from other articulations?
Tremolo is a rapid, continuous repetition of a single pitch (or rapid alternation between two pitches) used to create sustained intensity or a shimmering effect; the CED calls it “related to articulation” because it affects how a sound is sustained (DES-3.C.1). It’s different from standard articulations that shape attack and connection—like staccato (short, detached), legato/slur (smoothly connected), tenuto (held), or marcato/accent (emphasized)—because tremolo isn’t about onset or separation of notes but about repeating one pitch rapidly to produce texture and sustained volume. On the AP exam you’ll mainly be asked to identify articulations (and tremolo can appear as a notated symbol), while sight-singing tasks focus mostly on simple slurs and dynamics (DES-3.D.1). Want more examples and practice? Check the Topic 1.10 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-1/dynamics-articulation/study-guide/hYmA9fBlhEhye7XIEhOi) and try practice problems at (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/music-theory).
I don't understand how to interpret slurs versus ties in my music notation?
A tie connects two notes of the same pitch and means “hold the sound”: add the durations together and don’t re-attack the second note. A slur covers two or more different pitches and means “play legato” (smoothly connected)—you change pitch but connect the attack and release between them. On the AP exam, articulations like slurs appear as phrase markings for sight-singing; ties change rhythm (so you must write the combined duration) while slurs affect how you sing or play the phrase (DES-3.C.1 and DES-3.D.1). Look for ties when noteheads are the same pitch across a barline or beat; look for slurs when the line spans differing pitches, often indicating a phrase or legato. For practice, check the Topic 1.10 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-1/dynamics-articulation/study-guide/hYmA9fBlhEhye7XIEhOi) and try exercises on the Unit 1 page (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-1) or the practice bank (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/music-theory).
How do I avoid hesitations and restarts when sight-singing with all these markings?
Scan the whole melody first: note tempo, dynamic markings (pp–ff, hairpins, subito, sforzando) and slurs. Decide where you’ll breathe and how you’ll shape phrases so dynamics don’t force a restart. Remember the CED: keep a steady tempo and continuity—no hesitations or tempo changes unless notated. Practical tips: - Before you sing, count the meter and tap the pulse (foot or soft finger clicks) to keep momentum. - Reduce dynamics to relative levels in your head (mf = medium, p = soft). Small changes (hairpins, cresc./decresc.) should be gradual within the pulse, not pauses. - For articulations (staccato, slur, tenuto), plan syllables: short syllable for staccato, connected for slur. Practice micro-phrases where articulation + pitch are practiced together. - If you miss a note, keep going—recovering smoothly scores better than restarting. - Practice with a metronome and sing 2–4 bar chunks without stopping; then link them. For more practice and quick refreshers see the Topic 1.10 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-1/dynamics-articulation/study-guide/hYmA9fBlhEhye7XIEhOi) and Unit 1 resources (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-1). The AP exam has 2 sight-singing tasks—practice keeping continuity under timed conditions (use the practice problems page: https://library.fiveable.me/practice/music-theory).
What's the difference between mezzo forte and forte and how much louder should I actually sing?
Mezzo forte (mf) means “moderately loud”; forte (f) means “loud.” Think of dynamics as relative steps, not absolute decibels: mp < mf < f < ff. Practically for singing, mf = a comfortable, projected speaking-singing volume where your tone is clear but not strained; f = noticeably louder, more chest or support, with about one dynamic step louder than mf. A good rule: mf should let you be heard without shouting; increase breath support and open vowels for f so you don’t push the throat. On the AP sight-singing tasks, melodies are often marked loud (e.g., forte) to encourage clear projection while preserving pitch and rhythm—prioritize accuracy over extremes. For quick practice tips and examples, check the Topic 1.10 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-1/dynamics-articulation/study-guide/hYmA9fBlhEhye7XIEhOi) and drill sight-singing with practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/music-theory).