Introduction

I'll never forget the first time I really understood Cicero's rhetorical power - it was while translating this exact passage from De Imperio. I was struggling through section 27, trying to parse all the superlatives about Pompey, when suddenly the whole strategy clicked. Cicero wasn't just praising Pompey; he was systematically demolishing every possible objection to giving one man unprecedented military power. The goosebumps hit when I realized I was watching a master manipulator at work, someone who could make expanding executive power sound like the only rational choice.

This speech is Cicero at his most politically savvy, walking the tightrope between Republican traditions and practical necessity. You're reading the moment when Rome's constitution started bending toward autocracy, all wrapped in gorgeous periodic sentences.

• Author and work: Cicero, De Imperio Cn. Pompei (On Pompey's Command)
• Context: Speech to the Roman people, 66 BCE
• Why this passage matters: Peak rhetorical technique, political maneuvering, foreshadows empire
• Major themes: Military excellence, constitutional flexibility, eastern threats, Roman values
• Grammar patterns: Elaborate periods, superlative constructions, rhetorical questions
• Vocabulary focus: Military terms, virtue language, political vocabulary

Vocabulary

Military Excellence Terms

imperator, imperatoris (m) - general, commander

virtus, virtutis (f) - courage, excellence, virtue

scientia rei militaris - military science/expertise

auctoritas, auctoritatis (f) - authority, influence

felicitas, felicitatis (f) - good fortune, success

celeritas, celeritatis (f) - speed, swiftness

Cicero builds Pompey's qualifications systematically. Each term represents a essential military virtue. Notice how he'll pile these up in crescendoing lists.

Political and Constitutional Terms

imperium, -i (n) - command, power

potestas, potestatis (f) - official power

dignitas, dignitatis (f) - dignity, worthiness

res publica - the republic, state

lex, legis (f) - law

populus Romanus - the Roman people

These terms carry huge constitutional weight. Cicero's arguing for extraordinary imperium - basically unlimited command. That's seriously controversial in Republican Rome.

Enemy and Threat Terms

hostis, hostis (m) - enemy (of the state)

praedo, praedonis (m) - pirate

rex, regis (m) - king (Mithridates)

bellum, -i (n) - war

periculum, -i (n) - danger

calamitas, calamitatis (f) - disaster

Cicero amplifies threats to justify extreme measures. Watch how he makes pirates sound like existential threats to Roman civilization.

Economic Terms

vectigal, vectigalis (n) - revenue, tax

societas, societatis (f) - company, alliance

negotiator, -oris (m) - businessman

pecunia, -ae (f) - money

quaestus, -us (m) - profit

provincia, -ae (f) - province

Follow the money! Cicero knows his audience includes equestrian businessmen. He emphasizes economic threats to win their support.

Grammar and Syntax

Cicero's syntax in De Imperio reaches peak complexity. Here's how to navigate it.

The Ciceronian Period

Cicero builds massive sentences with multiple subordinate clauses building to a climax: "Cum... (temporal clause) quod... (causal clause) qui... (relative clause) ut... (result clause) main verb!"

Don't panic. Find the main verb first, then work backwards through the subordination. Each clause adds another layer of argumentation.

Superlative Stacking

"Vir clarissimus, fortissimus, felicissimus..." Cicero doesn't just call Pompey good - he's the MOST everything. These superlatives create an aura of inevitability. Who could oppose the BEST general getting the command?

Rhetorical Questions

"Quis est qui neget...?" (Who is there who would deny...?) "Quem possumus nominare...?" (Whom can we name...?)

These aren't real questions. Cicero's steering you toward his predetermined answer. The grammar forces agreement - notice the subjunctive in relative clauses after these questions.

Praeteritio (Pretending Not to Say)

"Non dicam... sed hoc dico..." (I won't say X... but I do say Y)

Classic Ciceronian move. He mentions what he's "not" talking about, planting the idea while maintaining plausible deniability. Grammar serves manipulation.

Translation Approach

Let me walk you through Cicero's techniques with specific examples.

From section 27: "Testis est Sicilia, quam multis undique cinctam periculis non terrore belli, sed consilii celeritate explicavit."

"Sicily is witness, which, surrounded by many dangers on all sides, he freed not by the terror of war, but by the swiftness of his planning."

Look at the construction: Cicero personifies Sicily as a witness, uses a relative clause to describe its peril, then contrasts military force with intellectual speed. The sentence structure mirrors the argument - Pompey solves complex problems elegantly.

From section 36: "Age vero illa res quantam declarat eiusdem hominis apud hostes populi Romani auctoritatem, quod ex locis tam longinquis tamque diversis tam brevi tempore omnes huic se uni dediderunt!"

"Come now, how greatly does this fact proclaim the same man's authority among enemies of the Roman people, that from places so distant and so different, in such a brief time, all surrendered to this one man!"

This is peak Cicero. The exclamation starts with conversational "age vero," builds through parallel "tam" phrases emphasizing distance and diversity, then culminates in the singular "uni" - one man. Grammar creates inevitability.

Historical and Cultural Context

Understanding 66 BCE Rome makes this speech's audacity clear. The Republic had survived by preventing any individual from gaining too much power. Now Cicero's arguing to give Pompey command over basically the entire eastern Mediterranean.

The immediate crisis was pirates disrupting grain supplies and Mithridates VI of Pontus (again!) threatening Roman interests in Asia. But the deeper issue was whether Republican institutions could handle empire-wide problems. Spoiler: they couldn't.

Pompey represented a new type of Roman leader - the professional general whose loyalty was to his troops and glory rather than traditional institutions. Cicero, the "new man" from Arpinum, understood that supporting Pompey meant relevance in this changing world.

The equestrian order (wealthy non-senators) backed this law because pirates threatened their eastern investments. Cicero speaks directly to their interests, showing how rhetoric adapts to audience. This isn't philosophy - it's targeted political messaging.

Literary Features

De Imperio showcases every rhetorical weapon in Cicero's arsenal. Here are the big ones.

Cataloging and Accumulation

Cicero lists Pompey's victories, virtues, and qualifications in overwhelming detail: "Testis est Pontus... testis est Cilicia... testis est Creta..."

The sheer accumulation creates momentum. By the time you finish the list, opposition seems impossible. It's rhetorical shock and awe.

Emotional Appeals (Pathos)

Despite the logical structure, Cicero hits emotional buttons constantly:

• Fear: Pirates will starve Rome!
• Pride: Roman honor demands victory!
• Greed: Your investments need protection!

Watch how he shifts between registers, matching emotional coloring to each argument.

Anticipation and Refutation

Cicero addresses objections before opponents can voice them: "Dicit aliquis..." (Someone says...) Then demolishes the imaginary objection.

This technique (procatalepsis) makes him seem reasonable while controlling the debate's terms. He's playing both sides of the argument.

Historical Exempla

Cicero invokes previous generals and precedents selectively. Marius, Sulla, Lucullus appear as foils to highlight Pompey's superiority. History becomes rhetoric, facts become arguments.

For the AP exam, this speech is gold for several reasons:

First, it's rhetorical technique at its finest. Every device you've learned appears here in context. Practice identifying persuasive strategies and analyzing how syntax supports argument.

Second, it captures a pivotal historical moment. The expansion of individual power that Cicero advocates here leads directly to Caesar, then Augustus. You're reading the Republic arguing itself out of existence.

Third, the vocabulary and syntax represent peak classical prose. If you can handle this Cicero, you can handle anything. The complex periods train your brain for Latin thinking.

When writing essays, consider how Cicero balances innovation with tradition. He's proposing radical change while claiming to preserve Republican values. That tension runs through the entire speech and captures late Republican politics perfectly.

This speech makes me genuinely excited about Latin prose. Cicero transforms what could be a boring administrative proposal into a masterclass in persuasion. Every sentence deploys calculated effects, yet the whole thing feels natural and inevitable. That's genius-level writing, and you get to read it in the original. How cool is that?