Rostow's Stages of Development
W.W. Rostow’s Stages of Development is a model that analyzes the 5 steps that it takes to move from an agricultural society to a service-based economy. His main assumption in creating the model was that each country had some kind of comparative advantage. Critics of this model state that it does not account for colonial legacy or government corruption in developing countries.
The Five Stages Are:
Traditional Society
In the traditional society stage of economic development, the economy is focused on primary production, such as agriculture and the extraction of natural resources. There is little technical knowledge or infrastructure, and the economy is typically characterized by low levels of productivity and income.
In traditional societies, the economy is often based on traditional methods of production and trade, and there is little division of labor. Economic activity is often organized around kinship and community ties, and there may be little or no formal market system.
Traditional societies may also be characterized by a lack of access to education and modern technology, as well as a lack of legal and regulatory frameworks to support economic activity. These factors can limit economic growth and development in traditional societies.
Preconditions to Takeoff
In the preconditions to takeoff stage of economic development, the country's leadership begins to invest in infrastructure and technical knowledge in order to stimulate economic growth. This may involve building roads, bridges, ports, and other infrastructure to support economic activity, as well as investing in education and training to increase the technical knowledge of the workforce.
During this stage, there may also be a shift towards more specialized and productive forms of agriculture, as well as the development of small-scale industries and manufacturing. This can lead to an increase in productivity and income, and can lay the foundation for more rapid economic growth in the future.
Takeoff
In the takeoff stage of economic development, the economy undergoes a shift towards industrialization, and labor begins to shift from primary production to factories. There is also an increase in urbanization as new infrastructure is developed to support the growing industrial sector.
During this stage, the economy experiences rapid and sustained economic growth, and there is an increase in productivity and income. The manufacturing sector becomes the driving force behind economic growth, and there is a rapid expansion of industry and trade.
The takeoff stage is often accompanied by significant changes in society, as people migrate from rural areas to urban centers in search of employment, and traditional ways of life are transformed by the growth of industry and technology.
Drive to Maturity
In the drive to maturity stage of economic development, technical advancements and increased investment in education lead to a shift towards a more skilled and knowledge-based economy. The manufacturing sector continues to be the driving force behind economic growth, but there is also a rise in the service sector and the development of more advanced and specialized industries.
During this stage, the economy continues to experience rapid economic growth, and there is an increase in productivity and income. The standard of living for the population also tends to improve, and there is a greater demand for consumer goods and services.
The drive to maturity stage is characterized by a more diversified and advanced economy, with a greater focus on innovation and technological development. This can lead to the development of new products and industries, and can drive further economic growth and development.
High Mass Consumption
In the high mass consumption stage of economic development, technical knowledge and education levels are high, and the economy becomes more industrialized and trade-based. The manufacturing sector continues to be a key driver of economic growth, but there is also a significant expansion of the service sector, which becomes the largest contributor to GDP.
During this stage, the economy continues to experience economic growth, but at a slower and more sustainable pace. The standard of living for the population is generally high, and there is a high level of demand for consumer goods and services.
The high mass consumption stage is characterized by a highly developed and diverse economy, with a strong emphasis on innovation and technological development. There is also a greater focus on social welfare and quality of life, and there is a greater level of economic and social equality.
Examples
Here are a few examples of countries at different stages of Rostow's model:
- A traditional society: rural areas in developing countries where subsistence agriculture is still the main form of livelihood.
- Preconditions for take-off: countries in East Asia, such as South Korea and Taiwan, in the mid-20th century, when they were beginning to adopt new technologies and increase their productivity.
- Take-off: the United States in the 19th century, when it underwent rapid industrialization and economic growth.
- Drive to maturity: Japan in the post-World War II period, as it industrialized and its economy became more diversified and advanced.
- Age of high mass consumption: many Western countries in the 20th and 21st centuries, such as the United States, Canada, and European countries, which have highly developed economies and high standards of living.
Wallerstein's World Systems Theory
Wallerstein's World Systems Theory is a structural theory of economic development that explains how the global economy is divided into a core, a periphery, and a semi-periphery.
According to the theory, the core countries are the most industrialized and technologically advanced, and they dominate the global economy through their control of finance, trade, and production. The periphery countries are less industrialized and have a more dependent relationship with the core, as they are primarily engaged in the production of raw materials and agricultural goods. The semi-periphery countries are intermediate between the core and periphery, and they may have some industrialization and trade connections with both the core and periphery.
The World Systems Theory suggests that the global economy is characterized by a core-periphery hierarchy, in which the core countries dominate and exploit the periphery countries for their own economic benefit. The theory also highlights the role of colonialism and imperialism in shaping the global economy and maintaining the core-periphery hierarchy.
The World Systems Theory has been influential in understanding global economic inequalities and has been applied to a range of fields, including sociology, anthropology, and political science. However, it has also been the subject of criticism and debate, as it has been accused of oversimplifying the complexity of the global economy and ignoring the agency of peripheral countries.
Here are a few examples of countries that fit into each category:
- Core countries: the United States, Western European countries, Japan
- Periphery countries: many countries in Latin America, Africa, and Asia, which are heavily dependent on exports of raw materials to the core countries
- Semi-periphery countries: countries in Eastern Europe, such as Poland and the Czech Republic, which have undergone industrialization but still have a lower level of development than the core countries
It's worth noting that the classification of countries into these categories is not fixed and can change over time as a country's economic and political circumstances change. For example, South Korea and Taiwan were once considered periphery countries, but have since become more industrialized and are now considered semi-periphery countries.
This image below basically shows how the core benefits from the periphery and semi-periphery. This image also shows how the semi-periphery can benefit from the periphery while still benefiting the core.
Image Courtesy of Medium
The Dependency Theory
The Dependency Theory holds that LDCs are highly dependent on foreign factories and technologies from MDCs to provide employment and infrastructure. The LDCs in this theory get stuck in the continuous cycle of dependency on the MDCs which never allow their economies to fully develop.
LDC stands for "Less Developed Country" and MDC stands for "More Developed Country." These terms are often used to classify countries based on their level of economic development and to distinguish between countries that are more advanced in their economic development from those that are less advanced.
LDCs are generally considered to be countries that are at an earlier stage of economic development and have lower levels of income, industrialization, and technological advancement. MDCs, on the other hand, are generally considered to be more developed countries that have higher levels of income, industrialization, and technological advancement.
There are a number of different criteria that can be used to classify countries as LDCs or MDCs, such as gross domestic product (GDP) per capita, industrialization, and access to education and healthcare. The United Nations (UN) also publishes a list of LDCs based on a composite index of economic, social, and human development indicators.
It is important to note that the classification of countries as LDCs or MDCs is a relative concept, and it can change over time as countries progress in their economic development. In addition, the classification of countries as LDCs or MDCs can be controversial, as it can reflect and reinforce existing global inequalities and power dynamics.
Here are some examples of countries that are often classified as LDCs:
- Afghanistan
- Bangladesh
- Burkina Faso
- Cambodia
- Ethiopia
- Haiti
- Malawi
- Nepal
- Sierra Leone
- Tajikistan
Here are some examples of countries that are often classified as MDCs:
- Australia
- Canada
- Japan
- Germany
- United States
- France
- United Kingdom
- South Korea
- Switzerland
- Sweden
Watch this video here for more on theories of development.
Frequently Asked Questions
What is Rostow's Stages of Economic Growth theory and how does it work?
Rostow’s Stages of Economic Growth is a modernization model that says countries pass through five linear stages as they develop: 1) Traditional society (agriculture, limited technology), 2) Preconditions for takeoff (investment, infrastructure), 3) Takeoff (rapid industrialization and growth), 4) Drive to maturity (diversified economy, tech spreads), and 5) Age of high mass consumption (service-oriented, high living standards). It works by focusing on structural change—moving labor and investment from agriculture to industry—plus rising GDP, urbanization, and tech diffusion. In AP terms it’s a classic example of Rostow/modernization theory you should contrast with dependency and world-systems critiques: it’s Eurocentric, assumes one path to development, and downplays unequal development and neocolonial ties. Expect questions on multiple-choice and free-response asking you to identify stages, explain processes (industrialization, export-led growth), or compare theories. Review Rostow in the Topic 7.5 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-7/theories-development/study-guide/pEJo3seYyS1tJPJTBYpy); see the Unit 7 overview and 1000+ practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-7 and https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-human-geography).
Why do some countries develop faster than others according to development theories?
Short answer: different theories point to different causes—some focus on internal change and others on relationships between countries. - Modernization/Rostow (Stages 1–5): countries that industrialize, build infrastructure, and shift from agriculture to manufacturing move faster through stages of growth. - Dependency and World-Systems (Wallerstein): colonialism, neocolonialism, and unequal trade make many countries “peripheral” or commodity-dependent; core countries extract value, slowing peripheral development. - ISI vs. EOI: import substitution can slow growth if markets stay small; export-oriented industrialization (EOI) can speed development by integrating into global markets. - Structural Adjustment Programs, backwash/spread effects, and global commodity chains show how policies, capital flows, and geography cause uneven development. For the AP exam, you should be able to explain and compare these models and apply core–periphery vocabulary (CED Topic 7.5). Review the topic study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-7/theories-development/study-guide/pEJo3seYyS1tJPJTBYpy) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-human-geography).
What's the difference between Rostow's theory and Wallerstein's World System Theory?
Rostow’s model is a modernization theory that describes development as a linear, internal process through five stages (traditional society → preconditions for takeoff → takeoff → drive to maturity → age of mass consumption). It assumes countries can progress by industrializing, investing, and adopting Western-style economic policies. Wallerstein’s World-Systems Theory is structural: it sees the global economy as a single system divided into core, semi-periphery, and periphery. Development and underdevelopment are outcomes of unequal exchange, historical colonial relationships, and ongoing exploitation (dependency/neocolonialism), not just a country’s internal choices. Key differences: Rostow = stages inside a country; optimistic, prescriptive (modernization). Wallerstein = global-scale, explains uneven development via core–periphery relations and dependency. Both appear in the CED under Topic 7.5 (keywords: Rostow’s Stages, World-Systems Theory, Core-Periphery, Dependency Theory). For quick review, check the Topic 7.5 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-7/theories-development/study-guide/pEJo3seYyS1tJPJTBYpy) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-human-geography) to prep for AP-style compare/explain free-response tasks.
Can someone explain dependency theory in simple terms because I'm totally lost?
Dependency theory says poorer countries stay poor because richer countries and global systems keep them that way. Instead of blaming internal culture or stages (like Rostow), it focuses on relationships: "core" countries (developed) buy raw materials from "periphery" countries (less developed), pay low prices, and sell back higher-value manufactured goods. That creates unequal trade, commodity dependence, capital extraction, and underinvestment in local industry—so wealth flows out of the periphery to the core. Think neocolonialism, uneven development, and the core–periphery model (Wallerstein/World-Systems ideas). For the AP exam, you should be able to explain how dependency leads to uneven development and link it to concepts like commodity dependence or structural adjustment programs. Want a quick review? Check the Topic 7.5 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-7/theories-development/study-guide/pEJo3seYyS1tJPJTBYpy) and practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-human-geography).
How does commodity dependence keep countries poor?
Commodity dependence keeps countries poor because they rely on exporting a few raw goods (coffee, oil, minerals) instead of higher-value manufactured products. That creates several traps tied to AP concepts like commodity dependence, dependency theory, and core–periphery relations. Prices for commodities are volatile and usually fall over time, so export earnings are unstable and can’t fund steady development. Exporting raw materials adds little value, so jobs and profits stay in core countries or foreign firms (neocolonialism/global commodity chains). Resource booms also cause “Dutch disease”: currency appreciation that hurts other exports and slows industrial diversification. Weak institutions and foreign control over extraction mean taxes and reinvestment are low, worsening uneven development. On the AP exam, you should be able to explain these links and name examples or mechanisms (price volatility, low value-added, foreign ownership). For a quick review see the Topic 7.5 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-7/theories-development/study-guide/pEJo3seYyS1tJPJTBYpy) or the Unit 7 overview (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-7). Practice applying this in FRQs at https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-human-geography.
What are the five stages in Rostow's development model and what happens in each one?
Rostow’s Stages of Economic Growth (a modernization-theory model) has five stages: 1. Traditional Society—economy relies on subsistence agriculture, limited technology, little social mobility or trade. 2. Preconditions for Takeoff—elites invest in infrastructure (roads, schools), science spreads, productive agriculture and some industry begin. 3. Takeoff—rapid growth in a few key manufacturing sectors; investment rates rise (~10%+ of GDP), urbanization increases and sustained industrial growth starts. 4. Drive to Maturity—industry diversifies, tech diffuses across the economy, productivity grows, exports expand beyond initial industries. 5. Age of High Mass Consumption—economy shifts to consumer goods and services, high incomes, widespread urban middle class, welfare and mass consumption dominate. Rostow’s model is in the CED under modernization theory and helps explain uneven development (SPS-7.E). For more AP-aligned review, see the Topic 7.5 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-7/theories-development/study-guide/pEJo3seYyS1tJPJTBYpy) and Unit 7 overview (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-7). Practice questions: (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-human-geography).
Why do development theories matter for understanding global inequality today?
Development theories matter because they give you frameworks to explain why development is uneven across places—exactly what the CED asks you to know for Topic 7.5. Models like Rostow’s Stages, Wallerstein’s World-Systems (core, semi-periphery, periphery), dependency theory, and ideas about commodity dependence help you link historical processes (colonialism, neocolonialism), trade strategies (import-substitution vs. export-oriented industrialization), and policies (structural adjustment programs) to outcomes like unequal income, resource control, and spatial patterns of poverty and wealth. Those concepts explain backwash vs. spread effects, global commodity chains, and why some countries stay dependent. On the AP exam, Unit 7 counts for 12–17% of multiple-choice, and you’ll be asked to explain these theories and apply terms like uneven development and core-periphery. Review the Topic 7.5 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-7/theories-development/study-guide/pEJo3seYyS1tJPJTBYpy) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-human-geography).
I don't understand how World System Theory explains why some countries stay poor - help?
World-Systems Theory (Wallerstein) explains persistent poverty by placing countries in a global core-periphery system. Core countries control high-value industries, finance, and global trade networks; periphery countries supply cheap labor, raw materials, and commodities. Because cores set the rules of trade and own global commodity chains, wealth and advanced production flow to cores while peripheries stay dependent and underinvested—that’s uneven development and a form of neocolonialism. Semi-periphery states sit in the middle: they both exploit peripheries and are exploited by cores, which can slow but not erase inequality. The theory connects to dependency theory and explains why export-oriented commodity dependence can lock countries into low-value, low-pay roles. For AP exam stuff, be ready to compare this with Rostow’s model and use terms like core-periphery, semi-periphery, dependency, and global commodity chains (see the Topic 7.5 study guide for review) (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-7/theories-development/study-guide/pEJo3seYyS1tJPJTBYpy). For practice, check the unit page (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-7) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-human-geography).
What's the difference between core, periphery, and semi-periphery countries in Wallerstein's theory?
Wallerstein’s World-Systems Theory divides countries into three roles based on economic power, control of capital/technology, and position in global trade. - Core: Rich, highly industrialized states (control finance, tech, high-value industries). They extract profit from global trade, pay high wages, and have strong institutions. - Periphery: Poorer, less-industrialized countries that export raw materials and cheap labor. They’re dependent on cores, have weaker institutions, and often experience uneven development. - Semi-periphery: Middle group that has some industrialization and can act as a buffer—they both exploit periphery and are exploited by cores (e.g., emerging industrial exporters). Semi-periphery helps stabilize the system by offering upward mobility routes. This fits AP EK SPS-7.E and core-periphery vocabulary you’ll need on the exam. Review this topic guide for clear examples and practice (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-7/theories-development/study-guide/pEJo3seYyS1tJPJTBYpy) and try practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-human-geography).
How do I write an essay comparing different development theories for the AP exam?
For an AP FRQ compare task, use a tight 3-part structure: thesis, direct comparison, short conclusion. Start with a one-sentence thesis naming the theories you’ll compare (e.g., Rostow, Wallerstein/world-systems/dependency) and claim how they differ in explaining uneven development. Define each quickly using CED terms (Rostow’s Stages; Wallerstein’s core–periphery–semi-periphery; dependency, commodity dependence; ISI vs. EOI; SAPs, neocolonialism). Then write paired comparisons: similarity (both link global trade to development) and clear differences (Rostow = linear modernization; Wallerstein = structural, persistent core advantage; dependency = external exploitation; commodity dependence = vulnerability to price swings). Support each point with a specific example and scale (country, region, global). End with a one-sentence implication about uneven development or policy outcomes (spread vs. backwash effects). Practice this format with prompts and timed writing. For a quick review, see the Topic 7.5 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-7/theories-development/study-guide/pEJo3seYyS1tJPJTBYpy) and try practice FRQs (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-human-geography).
Does dependency theory actually explain why Africa and Latin America struggled economically?
Short answer: dependency theory helps explain a lot, but it doesn’t fully “prove” why Africa and Latin America struggled economically. Why it helps: dependency theory (and Wallerstein’s world-systems/core-periphery model) shows how colonial ties, unequal trade, and commodity dependence locked many countries into exporting raw materials while cores captured value—a structural reason for uneven development and neocolonial patterns (EK SPS-7.E.1 keywords). It explains long-term external constraints like unfavorable terms of trade, foreign-owned industries, and influence of structural adjustment programs. Why it’s incomplete: internal factors (corruption, weak institutions, civil conflict), geography, policy choices (failed ISI in some places, successful export-led growth in others), and historical shocks also matter. So use dependency theory as one AP-aligned lens—especially for FRQ answers—but pair it with other explanations and examples (see the Topic 7.5 study guide for details: https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-7/theories-development/study-guide/pEJo3seYyS1tJPJTBYpy). For extra practice, check Unit 7 and practice sets (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-7) (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-human-geography).
What are some real examples of countries that followed Rostow's stages of development?
Rostow’s model is a linear modernization theory, so few countries match it perfectly—but you can point to some classic examples that roughly fit each stage: - Traditional society: many low-income, agrarian countries before major industrial change (models often cite parts of sub-Saharan Africa or rural South Asia). - Preconditions for takeoff: Japan after the Meiji Restoration (late 1800s)—infrastructure, institutions, and investment set the stage for industrial growth. - Takeoff: United States in the 19th century and Japan in the late 19th–early 20th centuries—rapid industrialization and sectoral shifts. - Drive to maturity: South Korea and Taiwan (1960s–1990s)—sustained industrial diversification and rising exports. - Age of high mass consumption: United States, United Kingdom—large service sectors and high consumer spending. Remember Rostow is in the CED under modernization theories (EK SPS-7.E.1) and is criticized for being Eurocentric and ignoring dependency/world-systems dynamics. For AP review, see the Topic 7.5 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-7/theories-development/study-guide/pEJo3seYyS1tJPJTBYpy). For broader Unit 7 review and practice Qs, check the unit page (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-7) and practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-human-geography).
Why do geographers criticize these development theories and what are the problems with them?
Geographers criticize development theories because many oversimplify how places change and hide power imbalances. Criticisms include: Rostow’s modernization model is linear and Eurocentric—assumes every country follows the same “stages” and ignores colonial history and uneven development; dependency and world-systems theories (Wallerstein) highlight that core countries extract resources from peripheries, but can be overly structural and downplay local agency; commodity-dependence warnings show vulnerability when countries rely on a few exports. Problems: they can be deterministic, ignore cultural and geographic contexts, miss internal regional inequalities (uneven development), and sometimes justify harmful policies like one-size-fits-all structural adjustment programs or export-oriented pushes that increase neocolonial ties. For AP exam work, link these critiques to SPS-7.E and use terms like core–periphery, semi-periphery, neocolonialism, and backwash/spread effects. For more review, see the Topic 7.5 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-7/theories-development/study-guide/pEJo3seYyS1tJPJTBYpy), Unit 7 overview (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-7), and practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-human-geography).
How does commodity dependence theory explain why oil-rich countries can still be poor?
Commodity dependence says a country that relies mostly on exporting one or a few raw goods (like oil) can stay poor even if it’s “rich” in resources. Why: prices for commodities swing a lot, so national income is unstable; governments get big export revenue but create few local jobs or industries (low value-added); and the economy doesn’t diversify into manufacturing or services. You also get “Dutch disease”—resource exports drive up the currency, hurting other export sectors—and global commodity chains and foreign firms (often in core countries) capture most profit, leaving the producer country with limited gains (a dependency/neocolonial pattern). The result is uneven development: high GDP per barrel but weak social indicators and persistent poverty. This fits AP’s commodity dependence and dependency theory ideas (SPS-7.E.1). For more review, see the Topic 7.5 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-7/theories-development/study-guide/pEJo3seYyS1tJPJTBYpy) and practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-human-geography).
What caused the spatial variations in development that these theories try to explain?
Spatial variations in development come from history, resources, and how places connect to the world economy. Colonialism and neocolonial relationships concentrated capital and infrastructure in colonial “cores,” leaving peripheries dependent on commodity exports (commodity dependence)—Wallerstein’s world-systems/Core-Periphery logic and dependency theory explain that. Geography of resources, transport costs, and agglomeration economies (industry clustering) produce uneven industrialization; backwash effects drain labor and investment from weaker regions while spread effects sometimes diffuse growth. Policy choices matter too: import-substitution vs. export-oriented industrialization, structural adjustment programs, and trade integration change trajectories. Global commodity chains and foreign investment can help semi-peripheral states advance, or lock them into low-value roles. On the AP exam you’ll be asked to explain these theories and link causes to spatial patterns (see EK SPS-7.E in the CED). Review the Topic 7.5 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-7/theories-development/study-guide/pEJo3seYyS1tJPJTBYpy) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-human-geography).