The United States has voting boundaries to make voting more representative of the population. Voting districts are set up based on population data from the census. However, many things have been done to mess with these boundaries in order to benefit different political parties.
What is an Internal Boundary?
An internal boundary is a line or border that divides one area or entity into two or more smaller areas or entities. Internal boundaries can be found in a variety of contexts, including geographic regions, political divisions, and organizational structures.
For example, an internal boundary might be a line that divides a country into states or provinces, or a line that divides a city into neighborhoods or districts. In an organizational context, an internal boundary might be a line that divides a company into different departments or divisions.
Internal boundaries can be used to define and distinguish different areas or entities within a larger whole, and they can play a role in shaping the identity and character of the smaller units that they divide.
How are Internal Boundaries Created?
Internal boundaries can be created for a variety of reasons, and the process by which they are created can vary depending on the context. Some common ways in which internal boundaries are created include:
- Political decisions: Internal boundaries are often created through political processes, such as legislation or executive action. For example, a government might pass a law that establishes new provinces or states within a country, or that divides a city into different districts or neighborhoods.
- Historical or cultural factors: Internal boundaries may be influenced by historical or cultural factors, such as the existence of pre-existing divisions or the presence of different ethnic or linguistic groups within a region.
- Physical geography: Physical geography, such as rivers, mountains, or other natural features, can sometimes serve as the basis for internal boundaries.
- Organizational needs: Internal boundaries within organizations, such as businesses or non-profits, may be created in order to facilitate the division of labor, streamline decision-making, or achieve other operational goals.
It's worth noting that internal boundaries can sometimes be contentious, and the process of creating or changing them can involve negotiation and conflict.
Examples of Internal Boundaries
Here are a few specific examples of internal boundaries:
- The Great Wall of China: The Great Wall of China is a series of walls and fortifications that were built over a period of more than 2,000 years to protect the Chinese empire from nomadic invaders. The wall serves as an internal boundary, dividing China from the steppes to the north.
- The border between the United States and Mexico: The border between the United States and Mexico is an internal boundary that divides the two countries. It was established in the 19th century through a series of treaties and agreements.
- The border between Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland: The border between Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland is an internal boundary that divides the two countries. The border was established in the 1920s as part of the partition of Ireland and has been a source of conflict and controversy.
- The boundary between departments within a company: Many companies are divided into different departments or divisions, with each department responsible for a specific area of the business. The boundaries between these departments can be considered internal boundaries.
- The border between neighborhoods within a city: Cities are often divided into neighborhoods or districts, each with its own character and identity. The boundaries between these neighborhoods can be considered internal boundaries.
Redistricting
Definition
Redistricting is the process of drawing electoral district boundaries in a representative democracy. It is typically carried out by state governments in the United States following the decennial census, in order to determine the number of seats each state has in the U.S. House of Representatives and to adjust the boundaries of legislative districts to reflect changes in population. Redistricting can have significant consequences for the balance of political power within a state and can be a controversial and politicized process.
What is the Census?
The census is a process of counting and collecting information about a population. It is typically carried out by national governments and is used to gather data on the size, composition, and distribution of a population. The census can provide valuable information about a population's age, gender, race, income, education level, and other characteristics, which can be used to inform policy decisions, allocate resources, and plan for the future.
Censuses are typically conducted every few years, and they can be conducted in a variety of ways, including through in-person visits, mailed or online surveys, or phone interviews. In some countries, participation in the census is required by law and failure to respond can result in fines or other penalties.
What Does this Do?
The census is taken every ten years to count the population for the purpose of distributing funding, resources, and to redistrict as needed. While the House of Representatives is capped at 435, the voting districts within a state have to be roughly the same size. As the population changes, the state legislature then draws new lines to accommodate a new district, which is called redistricting.
In 1912, the number of representatives was limited, which means even though the population of the US has tripled, the representation has not increased. In the US, each person in Congress represents about 747,000 people, which is significantly more than the equivalent representative in other countries.
Why is Redistricting Important?
Redistricting is typically carried out in order to reflect changes in population and to ensure that each electoral district has roughly the same number of people. This helps to ensure that each voter has an equal say in the political process and that each district is represented fairly in the government.
Gerrymandering
Definition
Gerrymandering is a practice that is used to manipulate the boundaries of electoral districts in order to give an unfair advantage to a particular political party or group. This is typically done by drawing the boundaries in a way that concentrates the voters of one group into a small number of districts, while spreading out the voters of the other group into many districts. As a result, the group that has been "gerrymandered" is unable to win as many seats as it otherwise would have been able to, based on its share of the vote. Gerrymandering is generally seen as undemocratic and has been the subject of legal challenges in many countries.
The process of redistricting can lead to dramatic manipulations. The most well-known example of this is gerrymandering, which when politicians use redistricting to cement their power. This is often based on race, voting patterns, class, etc.
For example, if there is a huge population of liberal black voters in a district, they would win seats as they outvote conservative white voters. But if you split the district through the black population, now you could have two districts with a majority of white conservative voters and minority black liberal voters. By doing this, there would now be two conservative congress-people representing an area that is actually a majority liberal area.
Here’s an example in Louisiana. The largest cities of Baton Rouge and New Orleans have the biggest black population in the state. The 6th District was drawn to keep the wealthy, white neighborhoods surrounding the two cities, while black communities are included in the 2nd District, which is largely liberal. By doing this, the 6th remains Republican and the 2nd is the only safely blue district in the state. If these lines were drawn differently, both districts could be overwhelmingly blue.
Why is Gerrymandering Important?
Gerrymandering is important because it can have significant consequences for the balance of political power within a state or country. By manipulating district boundaries, political parties can try to ensure that they win a disproportionate number of seats in the government, even if they do not have the support of a majority of voters. This can lead to a situation where the preferences of the majority of voters are not reflected in the makeup of the government, and can undermine the legitimacy of the political process.
Types of Gerrymandering
There are five types of gerrymandering and they all rhyme! Cracking, packing, stacking, hijacking, and kidnapping.
Cracking is when legislatures disperse a group into several districts in order to prevent a majority. Packing combines similar voters into one district to prevent them from affecting another district. This is what we see in Louisiana. Stacking is when minority voting groups are “stacked” together, but alongside higher turnout majority groups which dilutes their power. Hijacking involves redrawing districts to force two representatives in the same party to run against each other. And kidnapping is when redistricting moves a supported elected official to an area they are no longer supported.
Summary of Gerrymandering Types
Here are some common ways that gerrymandering can occur:
- "Cracking" refers to the practice of dividing a group of voters into multiple districts in order to dilute their voting power.
- "Packing" refers to the practice of concentrating a group of voters into a single district in order to reduce their influence in other districts.
- "Stacking" refers to the practice of creating districts with a narrow majority of voters from one group, in order to create a larger number of districts where that group has a minority of voters.
- "Hijacking" refers to the practice of altering district boundaries to move a group of voters into a different district, in order to change the outcome of an election.
- "Kidnapping" refers to the practice of altering district boundaries to move a group of voters into a district with a different representative, in order to change the outcome of an election.
Overall, any boundary has consequences, whether positive or negative. For example, when people who speak the same language or practice the same religion are split, boundaries play a negative role. But in a situation where two entities who are conflicting over a piece of land create a boundary that satisfies both parties, boundaries can be positive as well.
🎥 Watch: AP HUG - Shapes of States
Frequently Asked Questions
What are internal boundaries and how are they different from international boundaries?
Internal boundaries are lines drawn inside a country to divide authority or representation—think states, provinces, counties, or voting districts. They regulate who governs what at subnational scales and shape services, taxation, and political power. Unlike international boundaries, which separate sovereign states and control things like borders and sovereignty, internal boundaries are about internal administration and representation (reapportionment, redistricting). A key AP focus: voting districts can be redrawn (redistricting) in ways that change election outcomes—packing, cracking, creating majority-minority districts, or racial gerrymandering—so concepts like compactness, contiguity, communities of interest, malapportionment, and rules from the Voting Rights Act (and cases like Shelby County v. Holder) matter. This topic ties directly to IMP-4.B in the CED. For the study guide see (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-4/internal-boundaries/study-guide/2XTlTk9efO2nfIkMo2Dp). For unit review and practice questions, check (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-4) and (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-human-geography).
Why do voting districts matter for elections and how do they affect who wins?
Voting districts matter because they decide which voters are grouped together—and that grouping changes who wins. After reapportionment, states redraw districts (redistricting). If lines are drawn fairly (compact, contiguous, respect communities of interest), outcomes reflect actual voter preferences. But gerrymandering—using packing (putting many opponents into few districts) or cracking (spreading opponents thinly)—can shift seats away from the majority vote. Racial gerrymandering and creation of majority-minority districts tie into the Voting Rights Act (and legal limits set by cases like Shelby County v. Holder). Independent redistricting commissions, plus rules about compactness and contiguity, reduce manipulation. On the AP exam this is EK IMP-4.B.5 territory: know how districting, gerrymandering, and malapportionment affect results at local to national scales. For a clear review, see the Topic 4.6 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-4/internal-boundaries/study-guide/2XTlTk9efO2nfIkMo2Dp) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-human-geography).
What is gerrymandering and why is it considered unfair?
Gerrymandering is the drawing of voting-district lines to give one party or group an unfair advantage during redistricting. Tactics include “packing” (putting as many opponents as possible into few districts) and “cracking” (splitting opponents across many districts so they can’t win). It can also be racial gerrymandering when lines dilute a racial group's voting power, which ties into the Voting Rights Act and court cases like Shelby County v. Holder. Gerrymandered districts often ignore compactness, contiguity, and “communities of interest,” producing weird shapes and malapportionment. It’s considered unfair because it skews representation—elected bodies don’t reflect voter preferences—and weakens democracy. For AP exam study, this is part of EK IMP-4.B.5 on redistricting/gerrymandering (see the Topic 4.6 study guide: https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-4/internal-boundaries/study-guide/2XTlTk9efO2nfIkMo2Dp). Practice applying these terms with plenty of practice questions: https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-human-geography.
How does redistricting work and who decides where the new boundaries go?
Redistricting redraws voting-district lines after the census (every 10 years) to reflect population changes and reapportionment of the 435 U.S. House seats. Who draws the maps varies: most states let the state legislature decide (governor may sign/veto), some use independent or bipartisan redistricting commissions, and courts can step in if maps violate laws or constitutions. Maps are supposed to follow rules—contiguity, compactness, respect for communities of interest, and equal population (to avoid malapportionment). But partisan gerrymandering (packing and cracking) and racial gerrymandering (majority-minority districts) affect outcomes. Federal law (Voting Rights Act) and court decisions (e.g., Shelby County v. Holder reduced preclearance oversight) shape what’s legal. Courts often rule on challenges. This ties directly to EK IMP-4.B.5 in the CED—practice applying these ideas for the exam (see the Topic 4.6 study guide: https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-4/internal-boundaries/study-guide/2XTlTk9efO2nfIkMo2Dp) and try related practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-human-geography).
I'm confused about the difference between redistricting and gerrymandering - can someone explain?
Redistricting is the regular process of redrawing voting-district boundaries (usually every 10 years after the census) to keep districts equal in population and address malapportionment. It’s supposed to follow neutral criteria like contiguity, compactness, and respecting communities of interest. Gerrymandering is when those same maps are drawn to give one party or group an unfair advantage. Common tactics: packing (putting many opposition voters into a few districts) and cracking (splitting them across districts so they can’t form a majority). Racial gerrymandering—diluting minority voting power—is illegal under the Voting Rights Act, though Shelby County v. Holder weakened federal preclearance enforcement. Reforms include independent redistricting commissions and creating majority-minority districts to protect minority representation. On the AP exam you should be able to define both, identify packing/cracking, and connect to the Voting Rights Act and concepts like contiguity/compactness. More review on this Topic 4.6 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-4/internal-boundaries/study-guide/2XTlTk9efO2nfIkMo2Dp) and practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-human-geography).
What's the difference between political boundaries within a country versus between countries?
International (between countries) boundaries mark sovereignty between states—they define where one country’s laws, territory, and rights (like territorial waters or an EEZ) start and another’s end. Internal boundaries are divisions inside a state: provinces, states, counties, and voting districts. Functionally, international borders regulate migration, trade, and diplomacy; internal boundaries organize administration, representation, and service delivery. For AP terms: international boundaries are about state sovereignty (IMP-4) and types of borders (antecedent, superimposed, consequent). Internal boundaries tie to reapportionment, redistricting, and gerrymandering—packing, cracking, and majority-minority districts can change election outcomes (EK IMP-4.B.5). On the exam you might be asked to explain both the nature/function of these boundaries (Learning Objective IMP-4.B) or analyze how redistricting affects political power. For a quick review, check the Topic 4.6 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-4/internal-boundaries/study-guide/2XTlTk9efO2nfIkMo2Dp), the Unit 4 overview (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-4), and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-human-geography).
How do voting districts affect election results at local, state, and national levels?
Voting districts shape who wins and whose voices count. When lines are redrawn (reapportionment/redistricting), officials can gerrymander by "packing" opponents into few districts or "cracking" them across many—both change seat outcomes without changing votes. At the local level this can control city councils and school boards; at the state level it affects state legislatures and governor races; at the national level it changes which party wins congressional seats and thus national policy. Courts and laws (Voting Rights Act, Shelby County v. Holder) limit racial gerrymandering and push for majority-minority districts. Measures like compactness, contiguity, communities of interest, independent commissions, and preventing malapportionment make districts fairer. For the AP exam, be ready to explain packing/cracking, show scale effects, and evaluate reform options (CED EK IMP-4.B.5). Review the Topic 4.6 study guide for examples and practice (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-4/internal-boundaries/study-guide/2XTlTk9efO2nfIkMo2Dp) and try practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-human-geography).
Can you give me examples of how gerrymandering has changed election outcomes?
Gerrymandering has flipped real elections by using packing and cracking. For example, “packing” concentrates opposition voters into a few districts so the controlling party wins more surrounding seats (seen in some U.S. state maps where urban voters are shoved into weirdly shaped districts). “Cracking” splits a cohesive opposition community across districts so they’re always a minority and can’t elect their preferred candidate. Courts have also forced redraws when maps violated the Voting Rights Act or created racial gerrymanders; after rulings some states created majority-minority districts that increased representation for racial minorities. Changes to rules (Shelby County v. Holder weakened federal oversight) and creation of independent redistricting commissions in some states have altered outcomes by improving compactness, contiguity, and respecting communities of interest. For more AP-aligned detail, check the Topic 4.6 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-4/internal-boundaries/study-guide/2XTlTk9efO2nfIkMo2Dp) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-human-geography).
Why do politicians care so much about drawing voting district boundaries?
Politicians care a lot because how voting districts are drawn directly changes who wins. Redistricting and reapportionment set district lines after censuses; gerrymandering (packing and cracking) can concentrate or split voters so one party wins more seats even with similar vote totals. That affects local, state, and national power—who controls legislatures, who passes laws, and which policies get funded. Courts and laws matter too: the Voting Rights Act and cases like Shelby County v. Holder shape what's allowed (racial gerrymandering is illegal; some oversight was weakened). Criteria like contiguity, compactness, and “communities of interest” are supposed to limit abuse, and independent redistricting commissions try to make maps fairer. On the exam you might be asked to explain how these processes affect election results (IMP-4.B.5). For a clear AP-aligned review, see the Topic 4.6 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-4/internal-boundaries/study-guide/2XTlTk9efO2nfIkMo2Dp) and try practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-human-geography).
What are the consequences of gerrymandering on democracy and representation?
Gerrymandering distorts democracy by manipulating voting districts to favor one party or group. Techniques like packing (concentrating opponents into a few districts) and cracking (splitting opponents across many districts) weaken fair representation, create safe seats, and lower electoral competition and accountability. It can produce malapportionment where votes don’t carry equal weight and can dilute minority voting power (racial gerrymandering), triggering Voting Rights Act challenges or Supreme Court cases like Shelby County v. Holder. Consequences include more polarized legislatures, lower turnout, and complaints that boundaries reflect political power, not communities of interest or compactness/contiguity. Remedies include independent redistricting commissions and majority-minority districts to protect minority representation. For the AP exam, EK IMP-4.B.5 expects you to connect redistricting and gerrymandering to election outcomes. Review Topic 4.6 on Fiveable (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-4/internal-boundaries/study-guide/2XTlTk9efO2nfIkMo2Dp) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-human-geography).
How do I write an essay about the effects of internal boundaries on political power?
Start with a clear thesis: internal boundaries (voting districts, redistricting, gerrymandering) shape who holds political power by changing which groups vote together. In your body paragraphs: 1) define key terms (gerrymandering, packing, cracking, majority-minority districts, malapportionment); 2) give specific effects—e.g., packing dilutes opposition across fewer seats, cracking spreads a group’s votes so they win none, majority-minority districts can increase representation but may also be challenged as racial gerrymandering; 3) discuss legal/political checks (Voting Rights Act, Shelby County v. Holder, independent redistricting commissions) and criteria (compactness, contiguity, communities of interest). Use one or two case examples and link cause → electoral outcome → shift in policy/power. Conclude by evaluating trade-offs and relevance to centripetal/centrifugal forces. For AP FRQs, use command verbs (define, explain, describe) and cite evidence; practice similar prompts in the Topic 4.6 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-4/internal-boundaries/study-guide/2XTlTk9efO2nfIkMo2Dp), the unit overview (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-4), and extra practice (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-human-geography).
What happens when voting districts are redrawn after the census every 10 years?
Every 10 years the census triggers reapportionment and redistricting. Reapportionment redistributes the 435 U.S. House seats among states based on population changes; redistricting redraws the actual voting-district lines inside states. How lines are drawn can change election outcomes—legal redistricting aims for contiguity, compactness, and respect for communities of interest, while gerrymandering (packing and cracking) manipulates districts to favor a party or group. Lines can create majority-minority districts to protect minority representation, but racial gerrymandering can be challenged in court (Voting Rights Act issues; Shelby County v. Holder changed enforcement). Some states use independent redistricting commissions to reduce partisan bias. This directly ties to EK IMP-4.B.5 in the CED—learn these terms and effects for the exam. Review Topic 4.6 (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-4/internal-boundaries/study-guide/2XTlTk9efO2nfIkMo2Dp) and try practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-human-geography).
Is gerrymandering legal and why don't we just make districts based on geography?
Short answer: sometimes. Gerrymandering—drawing voting districts to help or hurt a party or group—is often legal unless it breaks specific laws (racial gerrymanders that violate the Voting Rights Act can be struck down by courts). Courts also limit extreme partisan maps in some cases, but there’s no single federal rule banning partisan gerrymandering nationwide (see Shelby County v. Holder’s impact on enforcement). Why not just use geography? Purely geographic rules (compactness, contiguity) ignore “communities of interest” and population equality (reapportionment/malapportionment rules). Politicians still control redistricting in many places, so they use packing and cracking to shape outcomes. Solutions include independent redistricting commissions and clear legal criteria to reduce partisan and racial gerrymandering. For AP study, focus on how voting districts, redistricting, and gerrymandering affect election results (EK IMP-4.B.5). More on this topic: Fiveable’s Topic 4.6 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-4/internal-boundaries/study-guide/2XTlTk9efO2nfIkMo2Dp) and unit overview (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-4). Practice questions: (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-human-geography).
How do internal boundaries reflect balances of power between different groups?
Internal boundaries (like voting districts) show who has political power by deciding who gets represented. Through redistricting officials can “pack” a rival group into a few districts or “crack” them across many districts to dilute their votes—that’s gerrymandering. Choices about compactness, contiguity, and honoring communities of interest can protect fair representation; ignoring them creates malapportionment and skews outcomes. Laws like the Voting Rights Act (and court decisions such as Shelby County v. Holder) shape whether majority-minority districts must be drawn. Some places use independent redistricting commissions to reduce partisan advantage and better reflect actual balances of power. This topic maps directly to EK IMP-4.B.5 (how districts and gerrymandering affect elections), so be ready to explain packing, cracking, majority-minority districts, and legal constraints on the exam. For a clear AP-focused review, check the Topic 4.6 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-human-geography/unit-4/internal-boundaries/study-guide/2XTlTk9efO2nfIkMo2Dp) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-human-geography).