Unit 3 - Challenges of Political and Social Cleavages 🧩
You read in the previous guide about the importance of studying social cleavages and saw how they play a role in each of our core countries. In this guide you will learn more about the difficulties that they pose to their governments. You must keep in mind that social cleavages play a role in a government, no matter what type of regime it is. Even the most stable democracies have seen the emergence of radical/terrorists religious elements that sprung from long-term cleavages. Democracies and Autocracies all have cleavages, but the difference is how these governments deal with them.
3.9: Challenges of Political and Social Cleavages
How do cleavages affect governments?
- Conflicting interests and competition among groups and political parties 🆚
In the previous guide we discussed the concept of coinciding cleavages, which can lead to complex and multifaceted conflicts in society. Many times, these groups form parties that are picking against another specific party. This can can cause polarization in the political system, but it may also be resolved through dialogue and negotiation. 🗣
Example: The Zapatista Movement grew its activity after the signing of the NAFTA - the free trade agreement between the US, Mexico and Canada - because they believed that it would harm indigenous communities. However, there were also other groups that believed that it was an excellent advancement for Mexico to be more integrated in the world market.
- Perceived lack of governmental authority and legitimacy 🤨
The emergence of cleavages may also affect the perception of the government, which causes these groups to want more autonomy from the state or a complete separation from it. The lack of control of the government over these groups may also cause a perception of lack of authority.
Example: In the UK, there has been a growing sentiment among the Scottish people for full separation from the mainland. The countries share a complex history, having shared a monarchy since the 14th Century. But, Scotland has its own legal system, government and cultural identity. The process of the BREXIT has increased these tensions, and the Scottish National Party continues to advocate for a second independence referendum.
- Pressure for autonomy/secession, intergroup conflict, terrorism, and civil war ⚠️
In many cases, some long-term cleavages gather hard power and may become a threat to other cleavages, the government, and even the population as a whole.
Example: Boko Haram in Nigeria has grown so much in popularity and power, that it has become a great threat to Nigerians. Their fight to instill a government that follows the sharia law in Nigeria is violent and has resulted in many human rights abuses.
- Encroachment of neighboring states that sense government weakness and vulnerability 😧
As mentioned above, the emergence of divisions may cause the government to look weak in the perception of its citizens and other nations. This may result in the government taking extreme measures to maintain its legitimacy, such as annexing another territory.
Example: The Russian government's invasion on Ukraine that began in Febraury of 2022 was a shocking attempt of imposing power over state that did not believe in the capacity of the Russian government to resort to violence. As a very extremist strategy, the Russia President Vladimir Putin engaged in a very long and cruel war, to prove Russia's hegemonic power in the region.
Cleavages ➗
As a recap, cleavages are internal divisions typically based on ethnicity, religion, geography, and/or class. Those divisions can become politicized, and this impacts political culture and political behavior. More specifically, the course focuses on how cleavages impact the relationship of citizens with their governments.
State reactions to cleavages can range from brute repression to recognition of ethnic/religious minorities and the creation of autonomous regions and/or representation of minorities in governmental institutions. The way that states react can impact the legitimacy (conformity to the law) citizens give to their regimes. Authoritarian states tend to react much more harshly to social cleavages that become politicized in order to maintain control and order.
Unit 3 - Quick Review! 🤓
This unit is mainly focused on the interactions between the state and society. A country’s political patterns are influenced by the characteristics and demands of its population.
We first explored civil society 🙋♂️which are voluntary associations that are separate from the state but help individuals to interact with the state.
Then, we moved into a discussion of political culture, ideologies, 💭 as well as political beliefs and values. With these topics, we focused on the core beliefs and values that address the tension between order and liberty,🆓 and shape the relationship between a state and its citizens.
The latter half of the unit focuses on how citizens formally and informally participate in politics and the differences in how authoritarian regimes and democratic regimes support or limit participation. In conjunction with participation, we explored how various regimes support or limit individual civil liberties or civil rights. 💪
Finally, we ended the unit with a discussion of how internal divisions, called cleavages, become politicized and impact relationships between groups and the state.
In the next Unit we will talk about Party, Election Systems and Citizen organizations!
Frequently Asked Questions
What are political and social cleavages and why do they matter?
Political and social cleavages are deep divisions in a society—for example ethnic, religious, regional, or class splits—that shape how people identify and organize politically. They matter because cleavages influence who competes for power, how parties form, and whether citizens trust the state (LEG-2.B). Strong or overlapping cleavages can cause conflicts like demands for autonomy or secession, interethnic violence, insurgency/terrorism, or a legitimacy crisis if groups feel excluded. Governments respond with things like federalism, devolution, consociational power-sharing, or centralization—each response has tradeoffs for stability and legitimacy (CED keywords). On the AP exam, be ready to explain how cleavages affect citizen relationships and political stability (LEG-2.B) and to use course-country examples. For a focused review, see the Topic 3.9 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-comparative-government/unit-3/challenges-political-social-cleavages/study-guide/zZOMBhLRH6wtjkf9qpH0) and practice 1,000+ questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-comparative-government).
What is a multinational state and how is it different from a regular country?
A multinational state is a country that contains two or more distinct nations—groups with shared identity (ethnic, linguistic, religious, or regional)—inside one sovereign government. It differs from a “regular” nation-state, where a single national identity largely matches the state. Multinational states often face ethnic or religious cleavages, pressure for autonomy or secession, intergroup conflict, and legitimacy crises (CED LEG-2.B.5). Governments respond with federalism, devolution, consociational power-sharing, or minority-rights protections to reduce instability. These concepts (regionalism, identity politics, secessionist movements) show up on AP Comp Gov FRQs and multiple-choice—so know causes, examples, and solutions. For the AP topic study guide see Fiveable (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-comparative-government/unit-3/challenges-political-social-cleavages/study-guide/zZOMBhLRH6wtjkf9qpH0). For broader unit review and lots of practice Qs, check the unit page (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-comparative-government/unit-3) and practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-comparative-government).
Why do ethnic and religious groups fight each other in some countries but not others?
Short answer: groups clash when identity differences (ethnic, religious, regional) line up with competition over resources, power, or territory—and when institutions don’t manage those cleavages. The CED’s LEG-2.B lists the key drivers: conflicting group interests, perceived lack of government legitimacy, pressure for autonomy/secession, and outside encroachment. Violence is more likely when cleavages are highly salient and overlapping (e.g., one ethnic group dominates the state and economy), when the state is weak or exclusionary, or when there’s no power-sharing (federalism, consociationalism) to give minorities rights and autonomy. By contrast, countries with inclusive institutions, effective legitimacy, or formal arrangements for autonomy/devolution tend to avoid intergroup violence. For more on how cleavages affect stability and policy solutions (federalism, power-sharing), see the Topic 3.9 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-comparative-government/unit-3/challenges-political-social-cleavages/study-guide/zZOMBhLRH6wtjkf9qpH0). Practice applying these ideas to FRQs and comparisons using Fiveable’s practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-comparative-government).
How do political cleavages lead to civil wars and terrorism?
Political cleavages (ethnic, religious, regional) can produce civil war and terrorism when groups’ identities map onto unequal access to power/resources and the state lacks legitimacy. If a minority feels excluded or threatened, pressures for autonomy or secession rise (LEG-2.B.5.c). Weak or delegitimized governments (LEG-2.B.5.b) can’t mediate competing interests, so grievances escalate: some groups form insurgent movements or use terrorist tactics to gain attention, coerce concessions, or provoke state collapse. Neighboring states may exploit weakness (LEG-2.B.5.d), making outbreaks more likely. Preventive responses include federalism, power-sharing/consociational arrangements, devolution, and protected minority rights to reduce incentives for violence. For AP prep, link this causal chain and use course keywords (secessionist movements, insurgency, legitimacy crisis) when answering FRQs on stability (see Topic 3.9 study guide: https://library.fiveable.me/ap-comparative-government/unit-3/challenges-political-social-cleavages/study-guide/zZOMBhLRH6wtjkf9qpH0; unit overview: https://library.fiveable.me/ap-comparative-government/unit-3). Practice applying examples with Fiveable practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-comparative-government).
What's the difference between autonomy and secession - I keep mixing these up?
Autonomy and secession both come from groups wanting more control, but they’re different in scope and outcome. Autonomy (or devolution) means a region or group gets more self-rule while staying inside the original state—like local lawmaking, cultural rights, or fiscal control. Secession means breaking away entirely to form a new, independent state. Autonomy reduces tensions by sharing power; secession is a full territorial split and usually threatens a country’s territorial integrity and stability. Both appear in multinational states and are listed in the CED as challenges (LEG-2.B.5.c), but autonomy is a compromise to keep the state together, whereas secession is a move to leave it. For exam prep, be ready to explain how each response affects legitimacy, intergroup conflict, and stability in free-response questions (compare consequences, give country examples). See the Topic 3.9 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-comparative-government/unit-3/challenges-political-social-cleavages/study-guide/zZOMBhLRH6wtjkf9qpH0) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-comparative-government).
Why would neighboring countries try to take advantage of weak governments?
Because weak governments lack legitimacy, control, and the ability to respond, neighbors see opportunities to advance their interests (CED LEG-2.B.5.d). Reasons include: grab territory tied to co-ethnic populations (irredentism), support secessionist or rebel groups to create friendly regimes, secure resources or borders, or establish buffer zones for security. Neighboring states may also exploit instability to expand political influence or prevent refugee flows. Those actions worsen multinational-state cleavages (ethnic, regional, religious), fuel secessionist pressure, and can trigger civil war or terrorism—exactly the stability challenges listed in Topic 3.9. For more on encroachment and cleavages, check the Topic 3.9 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-comparative-government/unit-3/challenges-political-social-cleavages/study-guide/zZOMBhLRH6wtjkf9qpH0) and Unit 3 overview (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-comparative-government/unit-3). Need practice applying this for an FRQ? Try problems at (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-comparative-government).
Can someone explain how group competition makes governments unstable?
When different social or political groups (ethnic, religious, regional, class) compete for resources, power, or recognition, governments get pulled in conflicting directions—that’s a major source of instability listed in the CED (LEG-2.B.5a). Competition raises tensions when groups feel excluded or when parties mobilize identity politics; it can erode legitimacy, fuel demands for autonomy or secession, and spark intergroup violence, insurgency, or even civil war (CED keywords: secessionist movements, interethnic violence, insurgency). Weak or perceived-illegitimate governments can’t mediate those conflicts, which invites external interference or makes repression more likely (LEG-2.B.5b–d). For AP prep, be ready to explain cause-effect links (how cleavages → legitimacy crises → instability) on FRQs and use country examples. Review Topic 3.9 for more examples and practice (study guide: https://library.fiveable.me/ap-comparative-government/unit-3/challenges-political-social-cleavages/study-guide/zZOMBhLRH6wtjkf9qpH0; unit overview: https://library.fiveable.me/ap-comparative-government/unit-3). Practice questions: https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-comparative-government.
What causes people to think their government isn't legitimate anymore?
People lose faith in a government's legitimacy for a few clear, AP-relevant reasons. If the state consistently fails to provide public goods (jobs, security, basic services) or is seen as corrupt, citizens feel the government no longer deserves authority (legitimacy crisis). Unfair or rigged elections, weak rule of law, or exclusion of ethnic/religious groups (ethnic cleavage, religious cleavage, regionalism) make people think the system is biased. Competing power centers—strong local/ethnic leaders, secessionist movements, or foreign interference—also undercut perceived authority (LEG-2.B.5b–d). Repression can backfire: violence may suppress dissent short-term but deepen legitimacy problems long-term. On the AP, be ready to link these causes to political stability and cleavages (Unit 3) and use course countries as evidence. For a focused review see the Topic 3.9 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-comparative-government/unit-3/challenges-political-social-cleavages/study-guide/zZOMBhLRH6wtjkf9qpH0) or the Unit 3 overview (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-comparative-government/unit-3). Practice questions: (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-comparative-government).
How do I write a comparative essay about political stability in multinational states?
Start with a clear thesis that answers how political stability differs in multinational states (tie it to LEG-2.B: cleavages affect relationships & stability). Pick 2 course countries (e.g., Nigeria and the UK) and structure paragraphs like an FRQ: define key terms (ethnic cleavage, regionalism, secessionist movements), then for each country give 1–2 specific pieces of evidence (institutions or events) showing causes of instability or stability (competition among groups, legitimacy crises, autonomy/devolution, federalism/consociationalism). For each piece of evidence explain why it affects stability (connect to a–d in LEG-2.B). Add one short comparison paragraph that shows a similarity and a contrast. End with a concession/refutation that acknowledges alternate explanations (economic factors, external encroachment) and tie back to your thesis. This mirrors AP free-response expectations (thesis, evidence, reasoning, alternate perspective). For topic review, see the Topic 3.9 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-comparative-government/unit-3/challenges-political-social-cleavages/study-guide/zZOMBhLRH6wtjkf9qpH0) and unit resources (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-comparative-government/unit-3). Practice with AP-style prompts at Fiveable (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-comparative-government).
I'm confused about how cleavages actually threaten political stability - can someone break this down?
Cleavages threaten political stability by turning social differences into political conflict. When ethnic, religious, or regional cleavages overlap with competition for resources or power, you get (a) group competition and polarized parties, (b) loss of legitimacy if the government’s seen as favoring one group, (c) pressure for autonomy or secession that can lead to insurgency/terrorism or civil war, and (d) outside states exploiting weakness (irredentism). Instruments that can reduce risk include federalism, devolution, consociational power-sharing, and guaranteed minority rights—but if those fail or are absent, grievances escalate. For the AP exam, be ready to explain these causal links (LEG-2.B.5) and use concrete examples in FRQs. For a quick review, see the Topic 3.9 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-comparative-government/unit-3/challenges-political-social-cleavages/study-guide/zZOMBhLRH6wtjkf9qpH0) and practice questions for Unit 3 (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-comparative-government/unit-3; practice problems: https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-comparative-government).
What are some real examples of countries dealing with pressure for secession right now?
Short list of real, current cases where governments face pressure for secession (with the AP keywords you should use when explaining these on the exam): - Spain—Catalonia: strong regionalism and ethnic/linguistic cleavage; push for independence, legal battles over autonomy (secessionist movement, legitimacy crisis). - United Kingdom—Scotland (and some Northern Ireland forces): renewed Scottish independence pressure after Brexit (regionalism, devolution, power-sharing). - Iraq—Iraqi Kurdistan: recurring Kurdish independence/ autonomy demands; federalism vs. irredentism. - Nigeria—Biafra (IPOB): Eastern secessionist claims tied to ethnic cleavage and perceptions of state illegitimacy. - Bosnia & Herzegovina—Republika Srpska: political leaders pushing for greater autonomy or partition (multinational state, territorial partition risk). - Ukraine—Donetsk/Luhansk/Crimea: separatist regions and foreign encroachment complicating sovereignty (irredentism, civil conflict). - Myanmar and Ethiopia: multiple ethnic regions seeking autonomy or independence (interethnic violence, insurgency). These examples map directly to LEG-2.B.5 (pressure for autonomy/secession) and are useful evidence for FRQ 3 comparisons. For more review, see the Topic 3.9 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-comparative-government/unit-3/challenges-political-social-cleavages/study-guide/zZOMBhLRH6wtjkf9qpH0) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-comparative-government).
Why do some governments lose authority when different groups start fighting?
When different groups start fighting, governments lose authority because conflict undermines legitimacy and the state’s ability to enforce rules. Violence or sustained protests make citizens doubt whether leaders represent or protect them (legitimacy crisis), and rivals—ethnic, religious, or regional—compete for power instead of following central institutions (conflicting interests). That weakens the government’s perceived authority, opens space for secession or autonomy demands, and can escalate into insurgency, terrorism, or civil war (LEG-2.B.5 a–c). Neighboring states may also try to influence or encroach if they sense weakness (irredentism/encroachment). On the AP exam, connect these concepts (legitimacy, stability, secession, intergroup conflict) in short-answer or FRQ responses—use course-country examples and explain how loss of legitimacy reduces effective governance. For more examples and review, see the Topic 3.9 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-comparative-government/unit-3/challenges-political-social-cleavages/study-guide/zZOMBhLRH6wtjkf9qpH0) and Unit 3 overview (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-comparative-government/unit-3). Practice applying this in questions at (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-comparative-government).
What happens when a government can't control ethnic or religious conflicts?
If a government can’t control ethnic or religious conflicts, it risks a legitimacy crisis and serious instability. Per the CED (LEG-2.B.5), outcomes include rising intergroup violence, pressure for autonomy or secession, insurgency/terrorism, civil war, and even encroachment by neighboring states that see weakness. Loss of perceived governmental authority makes policymaking harder and can fragment the state along regional or identity lines (regionalism, irredentism). States try fixes like federalism, devolution, consociational power-sharing, protected minority rights, or territorial partition to reduce tensions; if those fail, conflict can escalate. On the AP exam, you should link these consequences to legitimacy and stability (Big Ideas 1 & 2) and cite examples or policy responses. For a focused review, see the Topic 3.9 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-comparative-government/unit-3/challenges-political-social-cleavages/study-guide/zZOMBhLRH6wtjkf9qpH0) and the Unit 3 overview (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-comparative-government/unit-3). Practice application with problems at (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-comparative-government).
How do neighboring states "encroach" on weak countries and what does that look like?
When the CED says neighboring states “encroach” on weak countries (LEG-2.B.5.d), think of opportunistic pressure when the central government lacks authority or legitimacy. Encroachment looks like: irredentism (a neighbor claims territory because of shared ethnicity/religion), covertly backing separatists or insurgents, sending proxy forces or security advisors across borders, small-scale border seizures or skirmishes, political interference (funding opposition parties/media), economic choke points (trade restrictions or investment control), and using the “protect co-ethnics” pretext to justify intervention. These actions exploit ethnic/regional cleavages, raise chances of autonomy movements, civil war, or terrorism, and undermine stability—exactly the risks listed under Topic 3.9. For AP prep, be ready to explain how encroachment ties to perceived weakness and legitimacy crises and use course-country examples on the exam. Review Topic 3.9 (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-comparative-government/unit-3/challenges-political-social-cleavages/study-guide/zZOMBhLRH6wtjkf9qpH0) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-comparative-government).
What are the long-term effects of political cleavages on citizen relationships?
Long-term political cleavages reshape how citizens relate to each other by increasing polarization, reducing trust, and fragmenting social cohesion. Persistent ethnic, religious, or regional divides can produce identity politics, residential or occupational segregation, and repeated intergroup conflict (including pressure for autonomy/secession or even insurgency/terrorism), all of which undermine legitimacy and citizen-to-citizen trust (CED LEG-2.B.5; keywords: interethnic violence, minority rights, secessionist movements). Over time citizens may withdraw from cross-group cooperation, view opponents as illegitimate, and turn to radical alternatives—weakening political stability and lowering effective participation. Governments can try institutional fixes (federalism, devolution, consociational power-sharing, minority rights) to rebuild trust and reduce conflict. For AP prep, expect these concepts in FRQs on legitimacy/stability and comparative analysis—review Topic 3.9 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-comparative-government/unit-3/challenges-political-social-cleavages/study-guide/zZOMBhLRH6wtjkf9qpH0) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-comparative-government).