Romanesque (c. 1000–1150) is heavier and fortress-like: thick walls, small round (Roman) arches, barrel or groin vaults, few and small windows, and exterior buttressing built into the wall. Sculptures are mostly reliefs around doorways with didactic, stylized figures. Gothic (c. 1140–1400+) aims for verticality and light: pointed arches, ribbed vaults, flying buttresses that transfer weight outward so walls can be thin and filled with large stained-glass windows (lux nova). Gothic façades have tall pinnacles, rose windows, and more naturalistic sculpture in niches. To tell them apart on the exam, spot the arch and vault type (round = Romanesque; pointed = Gothic), window size (small vs. large stained glass), and presence of flying buttresses. Use these visual identifiers in FRQs to connect form to medieval worship and the idea of “new light” (see Chartres) (study guide: https://library.fiveable.me/ap-art-history/unit-3/cultural-contexts-early-european-colonial-american-art/study-guide/f5oWN0Q1NfHcZR15A1u6). For more practice, check Fiveable’s Unit 3 resources and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/unit-3 and https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-art-history).

Short answer: Byzantine art is a later, more formalized continuation of early Christian art that emphasizes spiritual abstraction, imperial authority, and iconic imagery rather than naturalistic narrative. Details you should remember for the CED: - Early Christian (late antique) art grew out of Roman traditions: basilica churches, catacomb frescoes, narrative scenes of Christ and saints, more naturalistic figures borrowed from classical sources (see Catacomb of Priscilla). It served didactic needs for a growing Christian community. - Byzantine art (Eastern Roman Empire) shifts toward front-facing, hieratic figures, gold backgrounds, flattened space, and highly stylized mosaics and icons that create a transcendent, otherworldly effect. Art expresses theology and imperial power (Christ as Pantokrator, Madonna as Theotokos) and often functions liturgically. Text and symbolic patterning are common; naturalism is avoided to emphasize divinity (CED CUL-1.A.14). For AP prep, practice comparing visual vs. contextual differences on free-response (use Topic 3.1 study guide: https://library.fiveable.me/ap-art-history/unit-3/cultural-contexts-early-european-colonial-american-art/study-guide/f5oWN0Q1NfHcZR15A1u6). For extra practice, try the 1000+ questions at https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-art-history.

Short answer: the Reformation split northern and southern art by changing who paid for art and what they wanted. In northern Europe (Protestant), religious images declined—especially in Calvinist areas—so artists shifted to secular genres that sold to merchants: portraiture, still life, landscapes, and scenes of everyday life (think Hunters in the Snow or Woman Holding a Balance). In southern Europe (Catholic), the Counter-Reformation increased church commissions that used dramatic naturalism, theatrical compositions, bold color, and emotional appeal to teach and inspire faith (think Caravaggio, Bernini, Il Gesù). For AP exam purposes, this is CUL-1.A.17 evidence of continuity and change: content, function, and form diverged. Want to review this topic? Check the Topic 3.1 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-art-history/unit-3/cultural-contexts-early-european-colonial-american-art/study-guide/f5oWN0Q1NfHcZR15A1u6) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-art-history).

Illuminated manuscripts like the Golden Haggadah were made on prepared animal skins (vellum or parchment), written with quill pens and iron-gall or carbon inks, and painted with ground mineral and organic pigments bound in egg (egg tempera) or gum arabic. Gold was applied as gold leaf (gilding) over a raised bole or gesso ground, then burnished and sometimes tooled for decorative effect. Process: skins were scraped, smoothed, and ruled for text; scribes copied the script; painters added miniatures and initials in layers of opaque and translucent pigment; gilders laid size, applied leaf, and polished it. Techniques include tempera layering, fine brushwork for facial/detail work, punchwork and tooling in gold, and marginal ornamentation tied to liturgical function. For AP exam IDs, materials (vellum, gold leaf, lapis lazuli, tempera) are useful identifiers. Review Topic 3.1 in the Fiveable study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-art-history/unit-3/cultural-contexts-early-european-colonial-american-art/study-guide/f5oWN0Q1NfHcZR15A1u6) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-art-history).

Start by identifying two quick facts (title, artist/date or material)—that’s something the exam often asks for. Then look for these Renaissance features in paintings like Botticelli’s Birth of Venus: - Classical revival: mythological subject, idealized figures and poses that reference ancient sculpture (contrapposto). - Naturalism & anatomy: more believable bodies and drapery than Medieval art, though still stylized here. - Linear organization & space: a shallow, coherent pictorial space even if not strict scientific perspective. - Compositional clarity: balanced, rhythmic arrangement of figures and gentle S-curve movement. - Light and modeling: subtle shading (not yet full chiaroscuro like later High Renaissance) to suggest volume. - Humanist content: focus on beauty, antiquity, and secular/philosophical themes alongside religious art. On the exam, use specific visual evidence (describe pose, space, light) and connect it to cultural context (Renaissance humanism, revival of classical models). For more practice and targeted review, see the Unit 3 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-art-history/unit-3/cultural-contexts-early-european-colonial-american-art/study-guide/f5oWN0Q1NfHcZR15A1u6) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-art-history).

Catacombs were underground burial complexes used by early Christians (and others) for interment, memorial rites, and sometimes clandestine worship when Christianity was new and occasionally persecuted. They provided safe, consecrated spaces for funerary practices and communal remembrance. Christians decorated them with imagery—like Good Shepherd figures, biblical scenes, and symbols (fish, Jonah, oracles of resurrection)—to express beliefs about salvation, resurrection, and community identity without overtly proselytizing. Images offered comfort to the bereaved, taught scripture to an often-illiterate congregation, and marked tombs with hope in eternal life. For AP Art History, link these functions to CUL-1.A (how belief systems shape art) and use the Catacomb of Priscilla as a required example in contextual-analysis free-response prompts. Study this topic in the Unit 3 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-art-history/unit-3/cultural-contexts-early-european-colonial-american-art/study-guide/f5oWN0Q1NfHcZR15A1u6) and try related practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-art-history).

The Counter-Reformation was the Catholic Church’s response to the Protestant Reformation. After the Council of Trent (1545–1563), church leaders decided art must teach clearly, move viewers emotionally, and strengthen Catholic faith. So they promoted dramatic, highly naturalistic, and theatrical art (Baroque)—think Caravaggio’s tenebrism, Il Gesù’s grand nave, or Bernini’s Ecstasy of Saint Teresa. These techniques—strong contrasts of light and dark, intense facial expressions, dynamic movement, and vivid narratives—made stories easier to understand and felt more urgent, encouraging devotion and participation. For the AP exam, link this to CUL-1.A.17 and CUL-1.A.18: explain how religious goals shaped form, content, and affect. For more review, see the Topic 3.1 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-art-history/unit-3/cultural-contexts-early-european-colonial-american-art/study-guide/f5oWN0Q1NfHcZR15A1u6), the unit overview (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-art-history/unit-3), and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-art-history) to drill contextual-analysis FRQs.

Fresco and tempera are two different painting processes you’ll see a lot in Medieval and early Renaissance art. Fresco (especially buon fresco) means applying pigment mixed with water directly onto wet lime plaster—the pigment chemically bonds as the plaster dries, so frescoes (e.g., Giotto’s Arena Chapel) are durable but require working in small sections called giornate and fast execution. Fresco secco is done on dry plaster and is less durable. Tempera uses pigments mixed with a binding medium (usually egg yolk) painted on prepared wood panels. Tempera dries quickly, allows very fine, linear detail and precise color layering, but it can’t achieve the deep glazing or slow blending possible with oil. For the AP exam, know materials/process differences and how technique affects style and function (CED Topic 3.1 & 3.3). For more practice and to review required works, check the Unit 3 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-art-history/unit-3/cultural-contexts-early-european-colonial-american-art/study-guide/f5oWN0Q1NfHcZR15A1u6) and thousands of practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-art-history).

Islamic concerns about depicting living beings (aniconism)—especially in religious contexts—encouraged artists at the Alhambra to avoid figural imagery and instead develop highly refined non-figural decoration. So you see dense geometric patterns, interlacing arabesques, and elaborate calligraphic bands of Qurʼanic text that both beautify space and convey spiritual meaning. The repeating, symmetrical designs emphasize unity, order, and the infinite nature of God; the complex geometry also reflects the Islamic world’s interests in mathematics and science. Architectural elements like muqarnas and tile tessellations create shifting light and shadow that animate surfaces without representing people or animals. For AP contexts, connect this to CUL-1.A ideas (aniconism; Islamic geometric pattern; Alhambra)—a likely angle on short free-response contextual analysis. For extra review, check the Topic 3.1 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-art-history/unit-3/cultural-contexts-early-european-colonial-american-art/study-guide/f5oWN0Q1NfHcZR15A1u6) and try practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-art-history).

Patronage = when wealthy individuals, families, or institutions commission and fund art. In the Renaissance, powerful families (think the Medici in Florence) hired artists to make altarpieces, frescoes, portraits, and civic works. That funding shaped what got made: patrons chose subjects (classical myths or devotional images), materials (expensive oil paint, marble), formats (private chapels vs public façades), and scale. Their tastes pushed artists toward naturalism and classical references tied to Renaissance humanism, and patron demands helped develop workshops and formal training—so style spread. Politically and socially, commissioned works advertised a family’s piety, education, and status; many pieces function as public propaganda for civic identity. On the AP exam, this is classic contextual-analysis content (CUL-1.A, Renaissance humanism). Use examples like Medici commissions or the Sistine Chapel when answering free-response questions, and review Topic 3.1 on Fiveable’s study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-art-history/unit-3/cultural-contexts-early-european-colonial-american-art/study-guide/f5oWN0Q1NfHcZR15A1u6). For extra practice, try AP-style questions at (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-art-history).

Baroque art (17th century) is theatrical, emotional, and dynamic: think strong diagonals, swirling movement, dramatic lighting (tenebrism), rich color, deep naturalism, and compositions that pull the viewer into a moment in time. Artists like Caravaggio and Bernini used light, gesture, and space to create psychological impact and theatricality (see Il Gesù, Ecstasy of Saint Teresa, Calling of Saint Matthew). Baroque in Catholic countries often served Counter-Reformation goals—clear, affective imagery that encouraged devotion and political propaganda. Renaissance art (15th–early 16th c.) emphasizes balance, harmony, classical order, idealized forms, linear perspective, and measured emotion rooted in humanism (think Raphael, early Michelangelo). Compare: Renaissance composition is stable and measured; Baroque is energetic and immersive. On the AP exam you might be asked to analyze light or context (Long Essay Q2/Short Q3); practice identifying these features in works from Unit 3 (study guide: https://library.fiveable.me/ap-art-history/unit-3/cultural-contexts-early-european-colonial-american-art/study-guide/f5oWN0Q1NfHcZR15A1u6; unit overview: https://library.fiveable.me/ap-art-history/unit-3). For more practice, try the problems at https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-art-history.

“Aniconic” means avoiding figurative images of sacred beings—so artworks represent the divine through symbols, geometry, text, or abstract forms instead of realistic human figures. In medieval contexts (especially early Christian, Byzantine, and Islamic traditions) aniconism shows up for several reasons: religious law or theology worried that realistic images could encourage idolatry; liturgical needs prioritized symbols and text for worship; and elite/court tastes preferred stylized, nonnaturalistic imagery that emphasized spiritual meaning over naturalism (CED CUL-1.A.12–14). Byzantine art, for example, stresses abstraction and iconic symbolism; Islamic art favors geometric patterns and calligraphy (see Topic 3.1 study guide on Fiveable: https://library.fiveable.me/ap-art-history/unit-3/cultural-contexts-early-european-colonial-american-art/study-guide/f5oWN0Q1NfHcZR15A1u6). On the AP exam, you should link form and context—explain how belief systems or worship needs shaped choices like aniconism (CED learning objective CUL-1.A). For more practice, use Fiveable’s practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-art-history).

Start with a clear thesis that links form and context—say how medieval and Renaissance works reflect different cultural priorities (religion/courtly focus, avoidance of naturalism vs. humanism, naturalism, classical influence). For the AP Long Essay–Comparison (35 minutes), always give two accurate identifiers for each work (title, culture/artist, date, materials). Compare by pairing visual evidence (style, composition, naturalism, use of text, iconography, light) with contextual evidence (patronage, religious reform, humanism, function). For example: Chartres’ stained glass (Gothic lux nova, didactic biblical narrative, flat iconography) versus Botticelli’s Birth of Venus (15th-century humanism, classical subject, idealized naturalism). Explain 2–3 clear similarities/differences and finish with a claim about meaning (how each reinforces power, belief, or audience). Practice this structure with required works from Unit 3 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-art-history/unit-3/cultural-contexts-early-european-colonial-american-art/study-guide/f5oWN0Q1NfHcZR15A1u6) and try practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-art-history).

Altarpieces like the Annunciation Triptych functioned as both liturgical tools and visual theology. Placed behind or on the altar, they focused worship, illustrated biblical narratives (didactic for largely illiterate congregations), and made the divine visually present—supporting medieval priorities of worship and devotion (CED CUL-1.A.13, CUL-1.A.14). Their panels organized scenes for private meditation or communal rites, used recognizable iconography (Mary, Gabriel, saints) to teach doctrine, and signaled patron status and piety. Stylistically, altarpieces avoided full naturalism and often incorporated text, hierarchical scale, and a clear narrative sequence that guided viewers’ spiritual understanding. On the AP exam, connect form and function in a contextual-analysis response: identify placement, audience, materials, and how these choices shape meaning (use CED language). For more on Topic 3.1 and practice questions, see the unit study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-art-history/unit-3/cultural-contexts-early-european-colonial-american-art/study-guide/f5oWN0Q1NfHcZR15A1u6) and practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-art-history).

After the Reformation northern Europe saw less public religious imagery (CED CUL-1.A.17), so artists shifted to subjects that fit new cultural needs. Protestant iconoclasm and stricter church tastes reduced altarpieces, while a growing urban merchant class wanted art for homes—so small-scale genres like still lifes, landscapes, portraits, and domestic scenes became marketable. Still lifes showed wealth (exotic fruit, fine tableware) and moral ideas at the same time: “vanitas” motifs (skulls, wilting flowers, hourglasses) reminded viewers of mortality and modesty—so these works could be secular and didactic without church patronage. Technically, northern painters’ attention to detailed naturalism made still lifes visually impressive and collectible. On the AP exam, this links to CUL-1.A contextual analysis (short or long FRQs): explain how belief systems, patrons, and setting shaped content and function. For a Topic 3.1 review, see the Fiveable study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-art-history/unit-3/cultural-contexts-early-european-colonial-american-art/study-guide/f5oWN0Q1NfHcZR15A1u6) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-art-history).