Greek sculpture shaped Roman works like the Augustus of Prima Porta in form, style, and purpose. Romans borrowed Greek idealized naturalism and contrapposto (think Polykleitos’ Doryphoros): Augustus stands in a relaxed, balanced pose with perfected anatomy and ideal youthfulness rather than an exact likeness. The finely modeled drapery and calm, heroic face echo Classical Greek aesthetics, while the marble medium and polished finish follow Greek practice. Romans adapted these Greek conventions for political messaging: the cuirass relief and Cupid at his feet mix myth and history to present Augustus as divinely sanctioned—an example of Roman eclecticism and Hellenization (INT-1.A, continuity/change). For AP review, link this to Learning Objective INT-1.A and skills 4.A/4.B about continuity and change. For a quick refresher, check the Topic 2.2 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-art-history/unit-2/cultural-interaction-ancient-mediterranean-art/study-guide/NayI0MHyLEiwkfmpsOfz) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-art-history).

A kouros (Archaic Greek) is a life-size, idealized youth: frontal stance, rigid limbs, stylized hair, the “Archaic smile,” and patterned anatomy derived from Egyptian prototypes. Functionally they’re often funerary or votive and express cultural ideals of youth and perfection (continuity from Near Eastern influence → Hellenization). Roman portrait sculpture, by contrast, emphasizes individualized realism (verism)—age, wrinkles, and specific features show social status, civic virtue, or family lineage. Romans also used sculpture as political imagery: emperors could be idealized in the Greek manner (e.g., Augustus of Prima Porta) while everyday portraits stressed believable likenesses. For the AP exam, this is a classic continuity/change comparison (Topic 2.2, INT-1.A; skills 4.A/4.B): kouroi show Greek idealizing conventions, Roman portraits adapt and mix Greek forms with realistic, propaganda-driven portraiture. Want more examples and practice questions? Check the Topic 2.2 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-art-history/unit-2/cultural-interaction-ancient-mediterranean-art/study-guide/NayI0MHyLEiwkfmpsOfz) and practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-art-history).

The Doryphoros (Spear Bearer) by Polykleitos is a textbook example of how Greek art shaped later traditions. Polykleitos developed a mathematical canon of ideal proportions and a balanced contrapposto pose—weight on one leg, a relaxed twist in the torso—that made the figure look natural yet idealized. Those innovations set a Classical standard for representing the human body: realism controlled by harmonious ratios. Roman artists copied Greek bronzes (many surviving Doryphoros versions are Roman marble copies), spreading those conventions across the Mediterranean and into imperial portraiture (see continuity/change with works like Augustus of Prima Porta). On the AP exam you can use Doryphoros to show INT-1.A (cultural exchange) and Skill 4.A/4.B arguments about continuity and change—Romans adapted Greek form to serve different audiences and political purposes. For a quick review, check the Unit 2 study guide on Fiveable (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-art-history/unit-2/cultural-interaction-ancient-mediterranean-art/study-guide/NayI0MHyLEiwkfmpsOfz) and try related practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-art-history).

The Colosseum (Flavian Amphitheater) was built using Roman concrete (opus caementicium) faced with travertine and tufa, plus brick and marble for seating and decoration. Builders used arches, vaults (barrel and groin), and a system of radial and annular corridors—techniques that let them span large interior spaces and circulate crowds efficiently. Architecturally they stacked engaged columns in orders (Doric, Ionic, Corinthian) for decoration rather than structural support. Greek architecture relied on post-and-lintel construction (stone columns + horizontal entablature), using marble or limestone and careful proportions (peristyle temples, Doric/Ionic orders structurally). Greeks favored open, measured temple plans; Romans adapted Greek orders decoratively and combined them with engineering innovations (arches, concrete, vaulting) to create new building types like the freestanding amphitheater. That Roman eclecticism and engineering is exactly what the AP CED highlights—compare continuity/change between Greek forms and Roman adaptations (see the Topic 2.2 study guide on Fiveable: https://library.fiveable.me/ap-art-history/unit-2/cultural-interaction-ancient-mediterranean-art/study-guide/NayI0MHyLEiwkfmpsOfz). For more unit review and practice, check Unit 2 (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-art-history/unit-2) and the practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-art-history).

Think of Etruscan art as a creative remix in the Mediterranean mash-up: Etruscans borrowed Greek shapes and motifs (kouroi, black-figure vase decoration during the Orientalizing period) but adapted them to local tastes, materials, and beliefs. They favored terracotta (large temple statues, roof decorations) and bronze (life-size bronze sculptures), used lively, animated poses, and emphasized funerary contexts (rich tomb painting and sarcophagi). That mix—Greek forms + Etruscan materials/functions—is syncretism and exactly what INT-1.A asks you to explain: cross-cultural exchange changes art-making. Roman artists later absorbed Etruscan techniques (temple plans, arches) and Greek-Etruscan hybrids fed Roman eclecticism. For the exam, use Etruscan works to show continuity/change (Skills 4.A/4.B): identify borrowed Greek features, then explain Etruscan innovations and Roman reception. Review Topic 2.2 for examples (study guide: https://library.fiveable.me/ap-art-history/unit-2/cultural-interaction-ancient-mediterranean-art/study-guide/NayI0MHyLEiwkfmpsOfz; unit overview: https://library.fiveable.me/ap-art-history/unit-2) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-art-history).

Look for style, technique, and material clues. Greek originals were often bronze (lost-wax) and show balanced contrapposto, tight anatomy, and subtle surface modeling; Roman copies are usually marble, sometimes slightly stiffer, with added supports (tree-trunks, drapery struts) where bronze would have been strong. Check for drill marks and reworked joins (Romans recarved heads to match patrons), differences in scale or proportion, and signs of copying like shallow undercutting or flattened backs. Context helps: findspot, inscription, or provenance may identify a Roman workshop. Scientific tests (pigment traces, metallurgical or isotopic analysis) give definite answers but aren’t always available. On the AP exam, practice attribution skills (Skill 6.A) by citing visual evidence—materials, contrapposto, support elements—and contextual clues. For review, see the Topic 2.2 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-art-history/unit-2/cultural-interaction-ancient-mediterranean-art/study-guide/NayI0MHyLEiwkfmpsOfz) and try practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-art-history) to get better at distinguishing originals from Roman copies.

"Eclecticism" in Roman art means mixing styles, forms, and motifs borrowed from different cultures (especially Greek and Etruscan) to create something new that suited Roman tastes. "Historicism" means Romans looked to past styles and historical models on purpose—reusing classical Greek forms or archaic motifs to connect with tradition and authority. Together, they explain why Roman works can feel both derivative and original: a building might combine Greek columns, Etruscan arches, and uniquely Roman engineering, while a portrait might copy Greek idealism but add specific, realistic details to identify an emperor. On the AP exam, recognize these ideas for INT-1.A (how cultures influence art) and for continuity/change prompts—e.g., Augustus of Prima Porta shows eclectic borrowing plus historicizing propaganda. For more review, see the Topic 2.2 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-art-history/unit-2/cultural-interaction-ancient-mediterranean-art/study-guide/NayI0MHyLEiwkfmpsOfz), the unit overview (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-art-history/unit-2), and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-art-history). Fiveable’s study guides and practice problems are great for drilling these concepts.

Because Romans admired Greek art as the gold standard, they borrowed, adapted, and reproduced it to show education, status, and political legitimacy. Greek styles (idealized bodies, contrapposto, Polykleitos proportions) became fashionable after Hellenization and Alexander’s empire spread those models. Romans practiced eclecticism and historicism: they collected Greek originals, made copies for wealthy patrons, and reused Greek forms in new Roman contexts (e.g., portrait realism + Greek idealism in imperial sculpture like Augustus of Prima Porta). Practical reasons matter too: demand for public monuments, villas, and libraries outstripped available originals, so workshops produced many copies. Importantly, copying wasn’t mere imitation—Romans syncretized Greek designs with Roman subjects, materials, and propaganda goals, which fits INT-1.A about cultural exchange. For more exam-focused review on interactions and examples, see the Topic 2.2 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-art-history/unit-2/cultural-interaction-ancient-mediterranean-art/study-guide/NayI0MHyLEiwkfmpsOfz) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-art-history).

Compare form, function, and cultural meaning. Start with two IDs (Anavysos Kouros: Archaic Greek, c. 530 bce, marble; pick a Roman work like Augustus of Prima Porta: Imperial Rome, early 1st c. ce, marble). Describe visuals: the Kouros is frontal, rigid, archaic smile, stylized hair, Egyptian influence and funerary function; Roman sculpture ranges from idealized, contrapposto bodies copied from Greek bronzes to highly realistic (veristic) portraiture used for political propaganda. Explain similarities/changes: both continue Greek interest in idealized human form and scale (continuity), but Romans adapt Greek styles selectively—copying classical contrapposto and Polykleitan proportions while adding individualized faces, narrative attributes, and imperial iconography (change/syncretism, Roman eclecticism). Connect to meaning: the Kouros marks youth/heroic ideal and grave commemoration; Roman works assert authority, lineage, and divine favor (Augustus uses mythic references). For the AP long essay, be sure to give two accurate identifiers, use specific visual/contextual evidence, and argue how similarities/differences show continuity and change (INT-1.A, 4.A/4.B). For a quick review, see the Topic 2.2 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-art-history/unit-2/cultural-interaction-ancient-mediterranean-art/study-guide/NayI0MHyLEiwkfmpsOfz) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-art-history).

Ideas, styles, and techniques flowed between the ancient Near East, Egypt, and Greece and reshaped their art. From the Near East came monumental scale, narrative reliefs, and composite creatures that influenced Greek friezes (think Pergamon’s dramatic high relief). Egypt’s strict conventions—hierarchical scale, registers, and funerary beliefs—informed early Greek sculpture and vase iconography during the Orientalizing Period. Greeks adopted and adapted these into human-centered naturalism: kouroi show Egyptian stance turned toward Greek proportion and later contrapposto (Polykleitos’ canon). After Alexander the Great, Hellenization spread Greek styles across the Mediterranean, producing syncretic works (Greek forms with local deities or Near Eastern motifs). Romans and Etruscans later borrowed Greek temples, encaustic painting methods, and peristyle planning, creating eclectic architecture like the Colosseum. For more AP-aligned examples and practice, check the Topic 2.2 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-art-history/unit-2/cultural-interaction-ancient-mediterranean-art/study-guide/NayI0MHyLEiwkfmpsOfz), Unit 2 overview (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-art-history/unit-2), and Fiveable practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-art-history).

Recorded Egyptian records (inscriptions, tomb texts, king lists, and dated reliefs) give you firm dates, names, and functions that most ancient Mediterranean cultures don’t always provide. That matters for AP INT-1.A: you can trace how dynastic Egypt’s artistic conventions (hierarchical scale, registers, frontal/composite poses, funerary iconography) spread or got adapted across the Mediterranean (Orientalizing influences on Greek vase design, later Roman eclecticism). Those records also tell you materials/techniques (encaustic, stone carving) and religious or political context, so when you compare works you can explain continuity or change with concrete evidence—exactly what free-response questions ask for. For more examples and to practice applying this to required works, check the Topic 2.2 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-art-history/unit-2/cultural-interaction-ancient-mediterranean-art/study-guide/NayI0MHyLEiwkfmpsOfz) and try practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-art-history).

Roman architects borrowed Greek architectural conventions and adapted them for the Colosseum’s scale—a classic example of Roman eclecticism. Key Greek features: stacked classical orders on the façade (bottom: Tuscan/Doric-type, then Ionic, then Corinthian; the top has Corinthian pilasters), the use of engaged columns and entablature motifs as decorative layering, and the emphasis on symmetry and proportional façades derived from Greek temple design. Romans combined those Hellenic surface treatments with Roman innovations (concrete, arches, vaults, a complex arena plan) so Greek orders became ornament rather than structural necessity. On the AP exam, this is a good continuity-and-change example (INT-1.A): Greeks supplied orders and formal vocabulary; Romans reused them to project imperial power and public grandeur. For a focused review, see the Topic 2.2 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-art-history/unit-2/cultural-interaction-ancient-mediterranean-art/study-guide/NayI0MHyLEiwkfmpsOfz) and try practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-art-history).

Trade and conquest moved objects, artists, and ideas, so styles flowed across the Mediterranean. Merchants and ports carried luxury goods and motifs (e.g., Near Eastern animal friezes) into Greek workshops during the Orientalizing period; Greek artists adapted those motifs into local forms like the kouros. Conquest spread Hellenization after Alexander—Greek sculptural techniques (contrapposto, naturalism from Polykleitos) show up in local royal programs (Pergamon, later Roman copies). Etruscan terracotta and Roman architecture borrowed Greek forms, then Romans practiced eclecticism and syncretism, mixing Greek, Etruscan, and Near Eastern elements (Augustus of Prima Porta, Colosseum’s orders). On the AP, use INT-1.A evidence to explain continuity/change (visual details + context) in FRQs. For a concise review, check the Topic 2.2 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-art-history/unit-2/cultural-interaction-ancient-mediterranean-art/study-guide/NayI0MHyLEiwkfmpsOfz) and practice 1,000+ questions at Fiveable (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-art-history) to lock this down.

Short answer: Hellenistic art is a Greek historical/style category (late Classical → Hellenistic, c. 323–31 bce) characterized by drama, emotional expression, deep relief, and experiments with realism (think Pergamon Altar, exaggerated pathos). Roman art is a separate cultural practice that often copied, adapted, and reused Greek (including Hellenistic) models. So when a work is “Hellenistic” but actually Roman, it means the Romans produced a copy or adaptation of a Greek-style composition for their own tastes—realistic portraiture, political propaganda, or domestic decoration—showing Roman eclecticism and syncretism (e.g., Alexander-model mosaics vs. Augustus of Prima Porta). For the AP exam, focus on continuity/change and INT-1.A: identify origin (Greek vs. Roman), visual style (emotive Hellenistic vs. Roman realism/eclectic use), function, and context. For more review examples and practice, see the Unit 2 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-art-history/unit-2/cultural-interaction-ancient-mediterranean-art/study-guide/NayI0MHyLEiwkfmpsOfz) and Unit 2 overview (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-art-history/unit-2). Practice problems: (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-art-history).

You study Greek, Etruscan, and Roman art together because they’re part of a connected story of influence, adaptation, and reuse across the Ancient Mediterranean. Greek artistic conventions (naturalism, contrapposto, Polykleitos’ canon) were adopted and transformed by Etruscan and Roman artists. Etruscans adapted Greek forms (terracotta sculpture, kouroi types) for local tastes; Romans collected, copied, and combined Greek models into eclectic, historicizing works (many “Hellenistic” pieces are actually Roman copies). Studying them together helps you explain continuity and change (CED INT-1.A) and practice comparison skills used on the exam (FRQ 1 and FRQ 6). Key terms: Hellenization, syncretism, Roman eclecticism, contrapposto. For targeted review, see the Topic 2.2 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-art-history/unit-2/cultural-interaction-ancient-mediterranean-art/study-guide/NayI0MHyLEiwkfmpsOfz) and Unit 2 overview (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-art-history/unit-2). Want more practice? Try Fiveable’s practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-art-history).