The American presidency has undergone major shifts since its inception. From Jefferson's limited government to Jackson's populism, the office evolved to meet changing needs. Lincoln's Civil War leadership and FDR's New Deal further expanded presidential power.

Cold War presidents wielded vast authority in foreign affairs. But Watergate led to new constraints. Reagan's conservative revolution and post-9/11 security concerns continued to reshape the presidency's role in American life.

Early 19th Century Transformations

Jeffersonian Ideals and Presidencies

• Thomas Jefferson's election in 1800 marked a shift towards limited federal government and states' rights
• Jefferson reduced the size of the federal government, lowered taxes, and prioritized an agrarian economy
• Subsequent presidents like James Madison and James Monroe largely continued Jeffersonian principles (Democratic-Republicans)
• Era saw territorial expansion through the Louisiana Purchase (1803) and beginnings of westward migration

Jacksonian Democracy and Populism

• Andrew Jackson's presidency (1829-1837) ushered in an era of expanded voting rights for white men and increased popular participation in politics
• Jackson positioned himself as a champion of the "common man" against elites and special interests
• Jacksonian policies included the Indian Removal Act (1830) which forcibly relocated Native American tribes, and the destruction of the Second Bank of the United States
• Successors like Martin Van Buren and James K. Polk embraced Jacksonian populist appeals and expansionism (manifest destiny)

Lincoln, the Civil War and a Stronger Presidency

• Abraham Lincoln's election in 1860 triggered the secession of southern states and the American Civil War (1861-1865)
• Lincoln greatly expanded presidential war powers, including suspending habeas corpus, instituting a military draft, and issuing the Emancipation Proclamation to free slaves in rebelling states
• Union victory in the Civil War and the abolition of slavery through the 13th Amendment (1865) solidified federal supremacy over the states
• Lincoln's assassination in 1865 cut short plans for Reconstruction; but the war transformed the office into a more powerful and activist presidency

20th Century Realignments

The Progressive Era and Expanding Federal Power

• Presidents Theodore Roosevelt, William Howard Taft, and Woodrow Wilson embraced Progressive reforms in the early 20th century
• Progressive presidents used the Sherman Antitrust Act to "bust trusts" and regulate large corporations (Northern Securities, Standard Oil)
• Progressives expanded the regulatory powers of the federal government through new agencies like the FDA and Federal Trade Commission
• Wilson further grew presidential power through World War I and his activist Fourteen Points foreign policy agenda

FDR, the New Deal and the Modern Presidency

• Franklin D. Roosevelt's presidency (1933-1945) fundamentally transformed the role of the federal government in response to the Great Depression
• FDR's New Deal policies greatly expanded the federal social safety net through programs like Social Security, unemployment insurance, and labor protections
• Roosevelt's leadership during World War II, including initiatives like Lend-Lease and the Atlantic Charter, established the U.S. as a global superpower
• The New Deal coalition realigned the Democratic Party and ushered in an era of liberal dominance; while also solidifying the "modern presidency" as an engine of activist government

The Imperial Presidency of the Cold War

• Cold War presidents from Truman to Nixon wielded vast foreign policy powers to prosecute the global struggle against communism
• Truman's decision to intervene in the Korean War (1950-1953) without a formal Congressional declaration established a precedent for unilateral presidential war-making
• Eisenhower, Kennedy and Johnson escalated U.S. involvement in Vietnam, while also using covert CIA operations to intervene in countries like Iran, Guatemala and Cuba
• Nixon's secret bombing of Cambodia and battles with Congress over the War Powers Act exemplified the "imperial presidency" and erosion of checks and balances

Late 20th Century Shifts

Watergate and Constraints on Presidential Power

• The Watergate scandal (1972-1974) during Richard Nixon's presidency led to new constraints on executive authority
• Watergate involved Nixon's role in covering up a break-in at the Democratic National Committee headquarters and other abuses of power
• Facing impeachment, Nixon resigned in August 1974 - the first president to do so
• In response, Congress passed laws like the War Powers Resolution, the Congressional Budget Act, and the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act to reassert Legislative oversight

The Reagan Revolution and the Conservative Resurgence

• Ronald Reagan's presidency (1981-1989) marked a conservative realignment in American politics and a reassertion of presidential power
• Reagan's economic policies ("Reaganomics") cut taxes, reduced regulations, and limited the growth of federal social programs
• In foreign policy, Reagan aggressively confronted the Soviet Union, labeling it an "evil empire," while also funding anti-communist forces in Afghanistan, Nicaragua and elsewhere
• Reagan's popularity helped Republicans make gains in Congress and state governments, reshaping the GOP as a vehicle for movement conservatism

The Post-9/11 Presidency and the War on Terror

• The terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001 transformed the presidency of George W. Bush and American foreign policy
• Bush declared a global "War on Terror" and oversaw the invasions of Afghanistan (2001) and Iraq (2003) to fight Al-Qaeda and other terrorist groups
• Bush claimed expansive executive powers as a "wartime president," including the use of enhanced interrogation techniques, extraordinary rendition, and warrantless surveillance
• Barack Obama continued many Bush-era anti-terror policies, while also expanding the use of drone strikes; Donald Trump imposed controversial "travel bans" on several Muslim-majority countries