Africa's major civilizations and empires shaped the continent's history. From the 6th to 16th centuries, West African empires like Ghana, Mali, and Songhai controlled vast territories and trade routes, amassing wealth and power.

Central, Southern, and East African kingdoms also flourished during this period. The Kingdom of Kongo, Great Zimbabwe, and Axum developed unique political systems, artistic traditions, and trade networks, leaving lasting cultural and economic impacts on the region.

West African Empires

Rise and Fall of Major Empires

• Ghana Empire flourished from 6th to 13th centuries as first major West African empire
  • Controlled trans-Saharan gold-salt trade routes
  • Declined due to Almoravid invasions and loss of trade monopoly
• Mali Empire emerged in 13th century, reaching peak under Mansa Musa's reign
  • Expanded territory significantly, incorporating former Ghana Empire lands
  • Wealth derived from gold mines and control of trade routes
• Songhai Empire rose to power in 15th century, becoming largest state in African history
  • Expanded eastward, conquering many central Sudan states
  • Fell to Moroccan invasion in 1591, marking end of golden age of West African empires

Notable Rulers and Their Achievements

• Mansa Musa ruled Mali Empire from 1312 to 1337
  • Famous for his pilgrimage to Mecca, displaying Mali's vast wealth
  • Expanded empire's territory and influence
  • Promoted Islamic scholarship and architecture (Great Mosque of Djenné)
• Sundiata Keita founded Mali Empire in 1235
  • Unified Mandinka clans and defeated Sosso kingdom
  • Established legal and administrative systems
  • Subject of epic poem "Epic of Sundiata", preserving oral history

Cultural and Economic Impacts

• Trans-Saharan trade routes facilitated exchange of goods, ideas, and culture
  • Gold, salt, and slaves were primary commodities
  • Spread of Islam throughout West Africa
• Development of urban centers (Timbuktu, Gao)
  • Became hubs of Islamic learning and scholarship
• Influence on art, music, and oral traditions
  • Griots preserved history through storytelling and music

Central and Southern African Kingdoms

Rise of Coastal and Inland Empires

• Kingdom of Kongo emerged in 14th century along Atlantic coast
  • Centralized government with provincial system
  • Adopted Christianity after Portuguese contact in 1483
• Great Zimbabwe flourished from 11th to 15th centuries in southern Africa
  • Massive stone structures served as royal palace and fortress
  • Controlled gold trade between inland regions and Indian Ocean coast
• Benin Empire established in 14th century in present-day Nigeria
  • Known for advanced metalworking and ivory carving
  • Walls of Benin, extensive earthworks surrounding the capital

Political and Economic Structures

• Oyo Empire dominated Yoruba region from 14th to 19th centuries
  • Unique political system with checks and balances
  • Alafin (king) shared power with Oyo Mesi (noble council)
• Trade networks linked inland kingdoms to coastal regions
  • Exported gold, ivory, and slaves
  • Imported textiles, beads, and firearms
• Agricultural advancements supported population growth
  • Cultivation of yams, oil palms, and other crops
  • Development of iron tools improved farming efficiency

Cultural and Artistic Achievements

• Kingdom of Kongo produced intricate raffia textiles and wood carvings
• Great Zimbabwe's soapstone bird sculptures became national symbol
• Benin's bronze plaques and sculptures documented royal history
• Oyo Empire's oral traditions preserved in Ifa divination system

East African Civilization

Rise and Decline of Axum

• Axum emerged as powerful kingdom in Horn of Africa around 100 CE
  • Reached peak of power in 3rd-6th centuries CE
  • Declined due to Islamic expansion and shift in trade routes
• Controlled Red Sea trade, linking African interior with Mediterranean world
  • Exported ivory, gold, and aromatics
  • Minted own coins, sign of economic independence

Cultural and Technological Advancements

• Developed unique Ge'ez script for writing
  • Used in religious texts and royal inscriptions
• Erected massive stone obelisks (stelae)
  • Largest standing at 79 feet, demonstrating advanced engineering
• Adopted Christianity in 4th century CE
  • Became one of earliest Christian kingdoms in world
• Agricultural innovations included terraced farming on hillsides
  • Allowed cultivation in challenging terrain

Legacy and Influence

• Axum's Christian traditions continued in Ethiopian Orthodox Church
• Linguistic influence of Ge'ez on modern Ethiopian and Eritrean languages
• Archaeological sites (obelisks, tombs) attract tourism and scholarly interest
• Axumite coins found as far as India, indicating extensive trade networks