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4.3 Harmonic Progression, Functional Harmony, and Cadences

7 min readjanuary 25, 2023

Mickey Hansen

Mickey Hansen

Mickey Hansen

Mickey Hansen

Tonal Music

For the AP test, all of our work with harmony will assume that our music is tonal.

What does it mean for music to be tonal? All pitch content is organized around a central pitch that we call the tonic.

It might sound complicated, but all it means is that your tonic note is a focal point to the music. Usually, it's also the end "goal" for the melody. All the other pitches function in relation to that tonic pitch. For example, B-flat major and both share B-flat as the tonic pitch, but the other pitches in relation to the tonic are different (major vs. minor scale).

The concept of has been present in Western music for several centuries, and has undergone a number of significant changes and developments over time.

The earliest forms of can be traced back to the music of ancient Greece, which was based on rather than keys. The medieval period saw the development of the system of , which served as the basis for in the Western world for many centuries.

During the Renaissance, composers began to experiment with more chromaticism and dissonance in their music, and the system of was gradually replaced by the system of that is still in use today. got really popular in music right around 1650. The Baroque period, which spanned the 17th and early 18th centuries, saw the development of and the creation of complex tonal structures.

In the Classical period, which followed the Baroque period, composers such as Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven wrote music that was more transparent in its structure and more closely followed the rules of . The Romantic period, which spanned the 19th century, saw a loosening of tonal structures and the use of more chromaticism and dissonance.

Western classical music veered away from for a while around 1900, but tonal organization is still central to other genres such as folk and jazz.

https://media.giphy.com/media/CpfSSEsP7EHza/giphy.gif

Harmonic Progressions

Remember when we learned that each diatonic pitch and chord has a name? These diatonic chords usually occur in a predictable sequence called a that provides structure to the music. The way in which the chords are arranged in a can have a significant impact on the overall feel and mood of a piece of music. 

Harmonic progressions can be described in writing using Roman numerals with appropriate markings for inversions as previously explained in this unit 3 study guide. The pace at which these harmonies change is called . Sometimes, the will change in the middle of a piece. You’ll notice that this changes the overall feel of the music quite a bit. Even if the tempo isn’t going faster, if the harmonies are changing faster, the piece feels faster. 

Harmonic progressions give music a sense of direction and help it arrive at a harmonic goal. In , this goal is the tonic, which is built on the first degree of the scale for the key. For example, in the key of E major, the tonic would be an E major chord. The tonic chord is labeled with the Roman numeral I.

Dominant and Predominant Functionality

All other diatonic chords play a role in helping music arrive at the tonic. There are two main functions that these chords can have: dominant and predominant.

Chords that have a dominant function usually immediately precede the tonic, and movement from a dominant chord to a tonic chord often creates a feeling of resolution. There are two chords that typically have a dominant function: the V and the vii.

(Note: even in a minor key, dominant chords will only be V and vii, not v or VII.)

Why do these two chords lead to the tonic with such a sense of finality? Consider the pitches that make up each chord. We are in the key of Bb Major:

https://firebasestorage.googleapis.com/v0/b/fiveable-92889.appspot.com/o/images%2F-LeQFg4TZnWfL.png?alt=media&token=200a6a56-ed56-41e8-b95a-e561cf511867

The V chord has scale degrees 5, 7, and 2, and the vii chord has scale degrees 7, 2, and 4. Scale degrees 7 and 2 can both resolve to the strong tonic note (scale degree 1) by a step, so we call them tendency tones. Scale degree 7 is a , so that tendency is even stronger.

The V chord is a stronger dominant than the vii chord because of a physics phenomenon called . You won't need to know this for the AP exam, but you will need to know that scale degree 5 wants to resolve to scale degree 1, which also makes the V chord want to resolve to the I chord.

The V chord also resolves to the I chord especially well because it shares a pitch. The root of a V chord is the fifth of a I chord, so the from V to I is often very smooth and aesthetically appealing.

https://media.giphy.com/media/GgyVZ3hWGaKXK/giphy.gif

Predominant chords usually appear—you guessed it—before dominant chords. Lots of different chords can serve a predominant function in different cases, and they're a bit more complicated than dominant chords. We'll learn more about these in Unit 5. For now, though, it's useful to know that IV and ii chords often act as predominant chords.

The most basic in the CPP is tonic-dominant-tonic. Usually, this looks like I-V-I or i-V-i (depending on whether you're in a major or minor key).

Take the Happy Birthday song, for instance. The over each phrase is I-V-V-I-IV-V-I. Since some of these are repeated, you could also simplify it to I-V-I-IV-V-I. In one case, the predominant briefly sets up the dominant, but the song mostly alternates between I and V.

This is super common across , and you'll find it in everything from Bach to Taylor Swift.

https://media.giphy.com/media/u23zXEvNsIbfO/giphy.gif

In Western music, you'll find with lots of different harmonic progressions, but most will be some variation of tonic-predominant-dominant-tonic. Movement in the opposite direction (for example, tonic to dominant or dominant to predominant) is called a .

https://media.giphy.com/media/WLT81i307Ddwk/giphy.gif

At the end of a musical phrase, the is called a . There are four main types of cadences: half ; deceptive; plagal; and authentic.

Cadences

A half occurs when a musical phrase ends on a V chord. Because the V chord has a dominant function, the half usually feels unresolved or unfinished. Phrases that end in a half sound a bit like a question, which is then answered by another phrase that ends with a stronger .

https://firebasestorage.googleapis.com/v0/b/fiveable-92889.appspot.com/o/images%2F-ibuxv0Mn2IvQ.png?alt=media&token=d76d1171-f9aa-499d-afd5-14fbee921486

A deceptive has a V chord that sounds like it should resolve nicely to a I/i chord, but instead progresses to a different chord. In many cases, deceptive cadences move to a vi/VI chord or a IV/iv chord, but any non-tonic chord can end a deceptive .

https://firebasestorage.googleapis.com/v0/b/fiveable-92889.appspot.com/o/images%2F-XDOSJ2JiBooK.png?alt=media&token=fe5bc59a-c73d-4511-a84d-b069bd76dd49

A plagal (sometimes also called an "amen" , since it is common in hymns) moves from the IV/iv chord to the tonic I chord. Although there is no dominant chord, plagal cadences are usually considered pretty strong resolutions.

https://firebasestorage.googleapis.com/v0/b/fiveable-92889.appspot.com/o/images%2F-jgHmmDWdNfGQ.png?alt=media&token=11a61d5c-87ad-4ac0-bf85-8cb0b7afecdb

The authentic comes in two forms: the perfect (PAC) and the imperfect (IAC). Both involve the dominant V chord (or dominant-functioning chord, such as a vii chord) resolving to the tonic I chord, but the PAC is stronger because both chords are in root position (where they are more stable), and the soprano voice ends on scale degree 1. If either the V chord or the I chord are inverted or if the soprano ends on a non-tonic pitch, then the is an IAC.

Here is the Imperfect (IAC):

https://firebasestorage.googleapis.com/v0/b/fiveable-92889.appspot.com/o/images%2F-X0jsH8GIjqKW.png?alt=media&token=152dbe2b-d895-4e45-93c8-2cff704d05da

Here is a Perfect (PAC):

https://firebasestorage.googleapis.com/v0/b/fiveable-92889.appspot.com/o/images%2F-w7kRmM5CY1K4.png?alt=media&token=7645e49f-008b-4ccf-848d-d61846dffc58

You can categorize these cadences as either conclusive or inconclusive based on their strength and finality. Inconclusive cadences are usually followed by more music, while conclusive cadences are often reserved for the end of a piece, movement, or other large music structure. Half, deceptive, and inauthentic perfect cadences are inconclusive, while plagal and perfect authentic cadences are conclusive.

Some cadences are so iconic that they have their own special name. The most common of these is the Picardy third, which is a V-I (observe the major quality of the tonic chord) in a musical work that is in a minor key.

https://firebasestorage.googleapis.com/v0/b/fiveable-92889.appspot.com/o/images%2F-9ygNH112k1JR.png?alt=media&token=a95aed7f-33b1-47bd-b872-49f1772a7841

Image via Wikimedia Commons

🦜 Polly wants a progress tracker: In Roman numerals, what are the four possible harmonic progressions that follow the tonic-dominant-tonic convention? (Hint: don't forget both major and minor!)

Key Terms to Review (25)

Authentic Cadence

: An authentic cadence is a chord progression that creates a sense of resolution and finality. It typically consists of a V (dominant) chord followed by a I (tonic) chord.

B-flat minor

: B-flat minor is a musical key that is based on the B-flat note and follows the pattern of a minor scale. It consists of the notes B-flat, C, D-flat, E-flat, F, G-flat, and A-flat.

Cadence

: A cadence is a musical phrase that marks the end of a musical section or piece. It provides a sense of resolution and closure to the listener.

Church Modes

: Church modes are scales that were used during the medieval and Renaissance periods of music. They have unique patterns of whole steps and half steps, different from major and minor scales.

CPP (Common Practice Period)

: The Common Practice Period refers to the era of Western classical music from around 1600 to 1900. It encompasses various musical forms, styles, and techniques that were widely used during this time.

E major key

: The E major key is a musical key that is based on the note E as its tonic. It consists of a specific set of pitches and has its own unique sound and characteristics.

Harmonic Progression

: Harmonic progression refers to the sequence of chords in a piece of music. It determines the overall structure and movement of the harmony.

Harmonic Rhythm

: Harmonic rhythm refers to how frequently chords change within a piece of music.

I chord (Roman numeral I)

: The I chord, also known as the tonic chord, is the primary chord in a key. It is built on the first scale degree and represents stability and resolution.

I-V-I progression

: The I-V-I progression is a common chord progression in music theory, particularly in the major key. It involves moving from the tonic (I) to the dominant (V), and then back to the tonic (I) again.

ii chord (Roman numeral ii)

: The ii chord, also known as the supertonic or second degree triad, is a minor triad built on the second scale degree of a key. It often functions as a transitional or passing harmony.

Imperfect authentic cadence (IAC)

: An imperfect authentic cadence is similar to a perfect authentic cadence but with one or both chords inverted or with additional non-chord tones present. While it still provides some sense of resolution, it may not have as strong of an impact as a perfect authentic cadence.

IV chord (Roman numeral IV)

: The IV chord, also known as the subdominant chord, is a major triad built on the fourth scale degree of a key. It provides a sense of tension and stability in music.

Leading Tone

: The leading tone is the seventh scale degree that is one half step below the tonic. It has a strong pull towards resolving to the tonic and adds tension and excitement to music.

Major and Minor Keys

: Major and minor keys are the two most common tonalities in Western music. A major key has a bright and happy sound, while a minor key has a darker and sadder sound.

Modes

: Modes are scales derived from major and minor scales by starting on different scale degrees. Each mode has its own unique pattern of whole steps and half steps.

Overtones

: Overtones are higher-pitched frequencies that are produced along with the fundamental frequency when an instrument or voice plays or sings a note.

Plagal Cadence

: A plagal cadence is a chord progression commonly used in hymns and religious music. It involves moving from the subdominant (IV) to tonic (I) chord, creating a peaceful and conclusive sound.

Retrogression

: Retrogression refers to a chord progression that moves backward or regresses harmonically instead of progressing forward. It involves using chords that are not typically found in the given key, creating an unexpected and sometimes dissonant sound.

Roman numeral analysis

: Roman numeral analysis is a system used to analyze chord progressions by assigning Roman numerals to each chord based on its relationship to the key. It helps musicians understand how chords function within a piece of music.

Tonal Counterpoint

: Tonal counterpoint refers to the art of combining multiple melodic lines in a harmonically pleasing way within a specific key. It involves creating independent melodies that work together harmonically.

Tonal Music

: Tonal music refers to a style of music that is centered around a specific key or tonic. It is characterized by the use of functional harmony and clear tonal relationships between chords.

Tonality

: Tonality refers to the organization of music around a central pitch, known as the tonic. It creates a sense of stability and hierarchy within a piece of music.

V chord (Roman numeral V)

: The V chord, also known as the dominant chord, is the fifth scale degree in a key and has a strong tendency to resolve to the tonic (I) chord. It creates tension and leads the listener's ear back to the home key.

Voice Leading

: Voice leading refers to how individual melodic lines (voices) move from one chord to another, creating smooth and coherent musical transitions.

4.3 Harmonic Progression, Functional Harmony, and Cadences

7 min readjanuary 25, 2023

Mickey Hansen

Mickey Hansen

Mickey Hansen

Mickey Hansen

Tonal Music

For the AP test, all of our work with harmony will assume that our music is tonal.

What does it mean for music to be tonal? All pitch content is organized around a central pitch that we call the tonic.

It might sound complicated, but all it means is that your tonic note is a focal point to the music. Usually, it's also the end "goal" for the melody. All the other pitches function in relation to that tonic pitch. For example, B-flat major and both share B-flat as the tonic pitch, but the other pitches in relation to the tonic are different (major vs. minor scale).

The concept of has been present in Western music for several centuries, and has undergone a number of significant changes and developments over time.

The earliest forms of can be traced back to the music of ancient Greece, which was based on rather than keys. The medieval period saw the development of the system of , which served as the basis for in the Western world for many centuries.

During the Renaissance, composers began to experiment with more chromaticism and dissonance in their music, and the system of was gradually replaced by the system of that is still in use today. got really popular in music right around 1650. The Baroque period, which spanned the 17th and early 18th centuries, saw the development of and the creation of complex tonal structures.

In the Classical period, which followed the Baroque period, composers such as Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven wrote music that was more transparent in its structure and more closely followed the rules of . The Romantic period, which spanned the 19th century, saw a loosening of tonal structures and the use of more chromaticism and dissonance.

Western classical music veered away from for a while around 1900, but tonal organization is still central to other genres such as folk and jazz.

https://media.giphy.com/media/CpfSSEsP7EHza/giphy.gif

Harmonic Progressions

Remember when we learned that each diatonic pitch and chord has a name? These diatonic chords usually occur in a predictable sequence called a that provides structure to the music. The way in which the chords are arranged in a can have a significant impact on the overall feel and mood of a piece of music. 

Harmonic progressions can be described in writing using Roman numerals with appropriate markings for inversions as previously explained in this unit 3 study guide. The pace at which these harmonies change is called . Sometimes, the will change in the middle of a piece. You’ll notice that this changes the overall feel of the music quite a bit. Even if the tempo isn’t going faster, if the harmonies are changing faster, the piece feels faster. 

Harmonic progressions give music a sense of direction and help it arrive at a harmonic goal. In , this goal is the tonic, which is built on the first degree of the scale for the key. For example, in the key of E major, the tonic would be an E major chord. The tonic chord is labeled with the Roman numeral I.

Dominant and Predominant Functionality

All other diatonic chords play a role in helping music arrive at the tonic. There are two main functions that these chords can have: dominant and predominant.

Chords that have a dominant function usually immediately precede the tonic, and movement from a dominant chord to a tonic chord often creates a feeling of resolution. There are two chords that typically have a dominant function: the V and the vii.

(Note: even in a minor key, dominant chords will only be V and vii, not v or VII.)

Why do these two chords lead to the tonic with such a sense of finality? Consider the pitches that make up each chord. We are in the key of Bb Major:

https://firebasestorage.googleapis.com/v0/b/fiveable-92889.appspot.com/o/images%2F-LeQFg4TZnWfL.png?alt=media&token=200a6a56-ed56-41e8-b95a-e561cf511867

The V chord has scale degrees 5, 7, and 2, and the vii chord has scale degrees 7, 2, and 4. Scale degrees 7 and 2 can both resolve to the strong tonic note (scale degree 1) by a step, so we call them tendency tones. Scale degree 7 is a , so that tendency is even stronger.

The V chord is a stronger dominant than the vii chord because of a physics phenomenon called . You won't need to know this for the AP exam, but you will need to know that scale degree 5 wants to resolve to scale degree 1, which also makes the V chord want to resolve to the I chord.

The V chord also resolves to the I chord especially well because it shares a pitch. The root of a V chord is the fifth of a I chord, so the from V to I is often very smooth and aesthetically appealing.

https://media.giphy.com/media/GgyVZ3hWGaKXK/giphy.gif

Predominant chords usually appear—you guessed it—before dominant chords. Lots of different chords can serve a predominant function in different cases, and they're a bit more complicated than dominant chords. We'll learn more about these in Unit 5. For now, though, it's useful to know that IV and ii chords often act as predominant chords.

The most basic in the CPP is tonic-dominant-tonic. Usually, this looks like I-V-I or i-V-i (depending on whether you're in a major or minor key).

Take the Happy Birthday song, for instance. The over each phrase is I-V-V-I-IV-V-I. Since some of these are repeated, you could also simplify it to I-V-I-IV-V-I. In one case, the predominant briefly sets up the dominant, but the song mostly alternates between I and V.

This is super common across , and you'll find it in everything from Bach to Taylor Swift.

https://media.giphy.com/media/u23zXEvNsIbfO/giphy.gif

In Western music, you'll find with lots of different harmonic progressions, but most will be some variation of tonic-predominant-dominant-tonic. Movement in the opposite direction (for example, tonic to dominant or dominant to predominant) is called a .

https://media.giphy.com/media/WLT81i307Ddwk/giphy.gif

At the end of a musical phrase, the is called a . There are four main types of cadences: half ; deceptive; plagal; and authentic.

Cadences

A half occurs when a musical phrase ends on a V chord. Because the V chord has a dominant function, the half usually feels unresolved or unfinished. Phrases that end in a half sound a bit like a question, which is then answered by another phrase that ends with a stronger .

https://firebasestorage.googleapis.com/v0/b/fiveable-92889.appspot.com/o/images%2F-ibuxv0Mn2IvQ.png?alt=media&token=d76d1171-f9aa-499d-afd5-14fbee921486

A deceptive has a V chord that sounds like it should resolve nicely to a I/i chord, but instead progresses to a different chord. In many cases, deceptive cadences move to a vi/VI chord or a IV/iv chord, but any non-tonic chord can end a deceptive .

https://firebasestorage.googleapis.com/v0/b/fiveable-92889.appspot.com/o/images%2F-XDOSJ2JiBooK.png?alt=media&token=fe5bc59a-c73d-4511-a84d-b069bd76dd49

A plagal (sometimes also called an "amen" , since it is common in hymns) moves from the IV/iv chord to the tonic I chord. Although there is no dominant chord, plagal cadences are usually considered pretty strong resolutions.

https://firebasestorage.googleapis.com/v0/b/fiveable-92889.appspot.com/o/images%2F-jgHmmDWdNfGQ.png?alt=media&token=11a61d5c-87ad-4ac0-bf85-8cb0b7afecdb

The authentic comes in two forms: the perfect (PAC) and the imperfect (IAC). Both involve the dominant V chord (or dominant-functioning chord, such as a vii chord) resolving to the tonic I chord, but the PAC is stronger because both chords are in root position (where they are more stable), and the soprano voice ends on scale degree 1. If either the V chord or the I chord are inverted or if the soprano ends on a non-tonic pitch, then the is an IAC.

Here is the Imperfect (IAC):

https://firebasestorage.googleapis.com/v0/b/fiveable-92889.appspot.com/o/images%2F-X0jsH8GIjqKW.png?alt=media&token=152dbe2b-d895-4e45-93c8-2cff704d05da

Here is a Perfect (PAC):

https://firebasestorage.googleapis.com/v0/b/fiveable-92889.appspot.com/o/images%2F-w7kRmM5CY1K4.png?alt=media&token=7645e49f-008b-4ccf-848d-d61846dffc58

You can categorize these cadences as either conclusive or inconclusive based on their strength and finality. Inconclusive cadences are usually followed by more music, while conclusive cadences are often reserved for the end of a piece, movement, or other large music structure. Half, deceptive, and inauthentic perfect cadences are inconclusive, while plagal and perfect authentic cadences are conclusive.

Some cadences are so iconic that they have their own special name. The most common of these is the Picardy third, which is a V-I (observe the major quality of the tonic chord) in a musical work that is in a minor key.

https://firebasestorage.googleapis.com/v0/b/fiveable-92889.appspot.com/o/images%2F-9ygNH112k1JR.png?alt=media&token=a95aed7f-33b1-47bd-b872-49f1772a7841

Image via Wikimedia Commons

🦜 Polly wants a progress tracker: In Roman numerals, what are the four possible harmonic progressions that follow the tonic-dominant-tonic convention? (Hint: don't forget both major and minor!)

Key Terms to Review (25)

Authentic Cadence

: An authentic cadence is a chord progression that creates a sense of resolution and finality. It typically consists of a V (dominant) chord followed by a I (tonic) chord.

B-flat minor

: B-flat minor is a musical key that is based on the B-flat note and follows the pattern of a minor scale. It consists of the notes B-flat, C, D-flat, E-flat, F, G-flat, and A-flat.

Cadence

: A cadence is a musical phrase that marks the end of a musical section or piece. It provides a sense of resolution and closure to the listener.

Church Modes

: Church modes are scales that were used during the medieval and Renaissance periods of music. They have unique patterns of whole steps and half steps, different from major and minor scales.

CPP (Common Practice Period)

: The Common Practice Period refers to the era of Western classical music from around 1600 to 1900. It encompasses various musical forms, styles, and techniques that were widely used during this time.

E major key

: The E major key is a musical key that is based on the note E as its tonic. It consists of a specific set of pitches and has its own unique sound and characteristics.

Harmonic Progression

: Harmonic progression refers to the sequence of chords in a piece of music. It determines the overall structure and movement of the harmony.

Harmonic Rhythm

: Harmonic rhythm refers to how frequently chords change within a piece of music.

I chord (Roman numeral I)

: The I chord, also known as the tonic chord, is the primary chord in a key. It is built on the first scale degree and represents stability and resolution.

I-V-I progression

: The I-V-I progression is a common chord progression in music theory, particularly in the major key. It involves moving from the tonic (I) to the dominant (V), and then back to the tonic (I) again.

ii chord (Roman numeral ii)

: The ii chord, also known as the supertonic or second degree triad, is a minor triad built on the second scale degree of a key. It often functions as a transitional or passing harmony.

Imperfect authentic cadence (IAC)

: An imperfect authentic cadence is similar to a perfect authentic cadence but with one or both chords inverted or with additional non-chord tones present. While it still provides some sense of resolution, it may not have as strong of an impact as a perfect authentic cadence.

IV chord (Roman numeral IV)

: The IV chord, also known as the subdominant chord, is a major triad built on the fourth scale degree of a key. It provides a sense of tension and stability in music.

Leading Tone

: The leading tone is the seventh scale degree that is one half step below the tonic. It has a strong pull towards resolving to the tonic and adds tension and excitement to music.

Major and Minor Keys

: Major and minor keys are the two most common tonalities in Western music. A major key has a bright and happy sound, while a minor key has a darker and sadder sound.

Modes

: Modes are scales derived from major and minor scales by starting on different scale degrees. Each mode has its own unique pattern of whole steps and half steps.

Overtones

: Overtones are higher-pitched frequencies that are produced along with the fundamental frequency when an instrument or voice plays or sings a note.

Plagal Cadence

: A plagal cadence is a chord progression commonly used in hymns and religious music. It involves moving from the subdominant (IV) to tonic (I) chord, creating a peaceful and conclusive sound.

Retrogression

: Retrogression refers to a chord progression that moves backward or regresses harmonically instead of progressing forward. It involves using chords that are not typically found in the given key, creating an unexpected and sometimes dissonant sound.

Roman numeral analysis

: Roman numeral analysis is a system used to analyze chord progressions by assigning Roman numerals to each chord based on its relationship to the key. It helps musicians understand how chords function within a piece of music.

Tonal Counterpoint

: Tonal counterpoint refers to the art of combining multiple melodic lines in a harmonically pleasing way within a specific key. It involves creating independent melodies that work together harmonically.

Tonal Music

: Tonal music refers to a style of music that is centered around a specific key or tonic. It is characterized by the use of functional harmony and clear tonal relationships between chords.

Tonality

: Tonality refers to the organization of music around a central pitch, known as the tonic. It creates a sense of stability and hierarchy within a piece of music.

V chord (Roman numeral V)

: The V chord, also known as the dominant chord, is the fifth scale degree in a key and has a strong tendency to resolve to the tonic (I) chord. It creates tension and leads the listener's ear back to the home key.

Voice Leading

: Voice leading refers to how individual melodic lines (voices) move from one chord to another, creating smooth and coherent musical transitions.


© 2024 Fiveable Inc. All rights reserved.

AP® and SAT® are trademarks registered by the College Board, which is not affiliated with, and does not endorse this website.


© 2024 Fiveable Inc. All rights reserved.

AP® and SAT® are trademarks registered by the College Board, which is not affiliated with, and does not endorse this website.