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1.5 Sources of and Changes in Power and Authority

7 min readmay 7, 2023

kelly-cotton

kelly-cotton

I

Isabela Padilha Vilela

kelly-cotton

kelly-cotton

I

Isabela Padilha Vilela

These two topics of study should really be studied in conjunction with one another because they build upon one another. In topic 1.5 you need to be able to identify where come from in the of the course( 🇨🇳 🇮🇷 🇷🇺 🇳🇬 🇲🇽 🇬🇧).

In topic 1.6 you are being asked to examine if the source of has changed in the course countries over time and why. You will also be asked to go one step further on the exam and, you guessed it, compare countries and their experiences or look for patterns that can be applied among countries.

Let's start with topic 1.5, . Power can come from constitutions, religions, , , legislatures, and popular support, but remember our focus also needs to be on how changed over time, and why.

Brief History of Each Course Country

Now you may be asking yourself, but how much history do I need to know in order to show changes in ? You should have a general knowledge of where the power to rule originated and basic changes over time, but you don't need to memorize the timeline of history for any nation with meticulous detail, so relax! Just the basics in this case. So let's go over the basics before we move onto a discussion of authority.

  1. UK—The political system in Britain is influenced by its history, and it's a long history. The UK was once ruled only by the monarchy who had absolute power, but the UK has a very evolutionary history. Over time, the monarchy lost power through moments like the and the . When the monarchy was restored in the 17th century, its powers were severely restricted by . The monarchy has no decision-making power. The power rests entirely in the and the .

    https://firebasestorage.googleapis.com/v0/b/fiveable-92889.appspot.com/o/images%2F-6TlRaFfSEIvU.jpg?alt=media&token=055a8b35-d38d-4c05-8908-7f29a21cb040

    Queen Elizabeth; image Courtesy of Wikimedia Commons

    https://firebasestorage.googleapis.com/v0/b/fiveable-92889.appspot.com/o/images%2F-ILoffxXJu1wm.jpg?alt=media&token=48062eff-b452-4cfe-b688-49edb1bdfb72

    Prime Minister Boris Johnson; image courtesy of Wikimedia Commons

  2. Mexico—This country has had a chaotic history of revolution and violence. Mexico transitioned from Spanish control to independence, but that independence was primarily under military dictatorships through the 19th centuries. After the , there was instability that was often calmed by authoritarian regimes. However, as the 20th century has come to a close, Mexico has become an emerging democracy, exhibiting characteristics like free and fair elections and .

    https://firebasestorage.googleapis.com/v0/b/fiveable-92889.appspot.com/o/images%2F-TjNvbUfvFeCR.jpg?alt=media&token=8472bd55-db69-4d29-b210-b9e5d8edbaae

    President Obrador; image Courtesy of Wikipedia

  3. Nigeria—This country has a long history of , having been under British rule until 1960. In 1960, however, they gained their independence. This has created a complex history in Nigeria, because on one hand the country was exposed to western beliefs like , but since independence has been gained, the military has been a tool to maintain control in the nation.

    https://firebasestorage.googleapis.com/v0/b/fiveable-92889.appspot.com/o/images%2F-7brUdeMcoNsM.jpg?alt=media&token=b76d746b-0417-4f49-b1d4-46a6ae9f1f39

    President Buhari; image courtesy of Wikipedia

  4. China—For centuries, dynastic rule influenced political, economic, and social culture in China. However, China was a victim of in the 19th century and revolution in the 20th century. The 20th century saw China become a communist nation under the leadership of General Mao. Authoritarian policies in regards to trade, education, and industrialization went through a period of reform under Deng Xiaoping, however there has been little move away from authoritarianism politically.

    https://firebasestorage.googleapis.com/v0/b/fiveable-92889.appspot.com/o/images%2F-lAqEhMGWcnMu.jpg?alt=media&token=77aad76e-229e-4822-b7fa-8522330e894d

    President Xi; image courtesy of Wikipedia

  5. Iran—A country of complex history, we can describe the history of this course country as "two histories at odds with one another." Iran has a long history with the of Islam, but its modern history is one of revolution that resulted in a that was modified after another revolution in 1979. Iran politically follows the principles of Shiism and a divine cleric, but this often clashes with the idea of the people's sovereignty, which was part of the pre and post 1979.

    https://firebasestorage.googleapis.com/v0/b/fiveable-92889.appspot.com/o/images%2F-Q6YUQrT8trRX.jpg?alt=media&token=e92d80d4-9fed-4a38-bc2c-ea2b9ce45b42

    Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei; image courtesy of Forbes

    https://firebasestorage.googleapis.com/v0/b/fiveable-92889.appspot.com/o/images%2F-EHGyD9IMMkjS.jpg?alt=media&token=114aa4cd-6c22-4987-9a5c-90afea4f8f97

    Iranian President Rouhani; image courtesy of DW

  6. Russia—Historically Russia was an autocratic nation, ruled by a tsar. In 1919, autocracy turned into dictatorship under the . In 1991, the Soviet Union broke apart and Russia re-emerged. However, years of communist rule did not disappear, despite some move toward more democratic tendencies under Boris Yeltsin. However, any movement toward democracy has taken a step back under Vladimir Putin.

https://firebasestorage.googleapis.com/v0/b/fiveable-92889.appspot.com/o/images%2F-KgTN97WZ5idw.jpg?alt=media&token=3bfe480d-d59e-4bbb-ba05-d3f2336bffa8

President Putin; image courtesy of Wikimedia Commons

These brief histories are important because in the CED you will see several examples of singled out. need to come from somewhere, and the histories above will help you to understand those and authority.

The Different Sources of Power

In this section we will go over the different and provide examples in each core country. These are the pointed out by the College Board, make sure you understand the concept of each of these and their role in maintaining power:

  • - 📜 A set of rules and principles established on principles or precedents that a state must abide by.

    • Example: In the United Kingdom, constitutional reforms allow for amends to be made to the document and provide stability over time.

  • - 🕌 can have a powerful influence over people and societies. can create a set of values that guide a community/group of people.

    • Example: Iran is a ruled on the foundation of the , which provides rules for of Muslim life which includes but is not limited to marriage, business transactions, and inheritance. In Iran, the exercises power over people and their daily lives.

  • - 🪖It refers to the ability of a group to impose power through military control. This can happen within borders or across borders. can impose auhtority through several ways, such as the use of military force, the threat of military force and/or the presence of the military.

    • Example: Nigeria's military dictatorships have used coercion to threaten the population and impose power. It highly limited civilians' political power as well as their rights and liberties.

  • Legislature - 📚The power of the legislature can vary from country to country. However, this body holds immense power as it can basically shape the political direction of a nation.

    • Example: The political elites in Russia have helped to maintain the power of the one-party system by passing election rules that favor those already in power.

  • Popular support - 💬 It refers to the degree in which one particular individual or group is endorsed by the people. It has a great influence in politics, as popular support can shape the decision of government and other organization.

    • Example: Through the process of the PRI party in Mexico has boosted popular support to remain in power.

💡 is the process in which politicians offer benefits, services, goods to supporters in exchange for their loyalty and support.

Changes in Source of Power

The CED is very clear with the examples of in each of the course countries, and when College Board takes the time to provide you examples, you need to know those examples! Let's go over them together.

  • The UK 🇬🇧—Several changes in regards to authority over time. Once authority lie with a King via divine right, but as time went on authority shifted from the monarchy to , and more directly the people as a result of constitutional reforms.

  • Mexico 🇲🇽 and Nigeria 🇳🇬—We have discussed several times how these authoritarian regimes are becoming more democratic and can be seen as emerging democracies. One source of legitimacy for regimes in recent times has been multi-party elections in which different parties have won power as a result of free and fair elections.

  • China 🇨🇳—Authority rests with the 's control over the military, and this, in turn, provides to maintain regime stability.

  • Iran 🇮🇷—Authority used to rest with a dictator, in fact it was a or a King that had the authority to rule, but in 1979 there was a revolution and the authority shifted to religious leaders, which still remains today!

  • Russia 🇷🇺—Authority rests with the political elite's back of a strong President, so in this case it is the support of the elite, not election results that provides the authority for the President to have such power.

One last thing before we leave this particular topic: differences in the way authority is maintained by democratic and authoritarian regimes. Democratic 🙋🏾‍♀️ regimes tend to evolve slowly over time, using non-violent means like elections. In authoritarian 👑 regimes we often see sudden changes as a result of revolution or coups d e'tat (military takeovers). So once again, be sure to study the examples above as they illustrate some of the differences between democratic 🙋🏾‍♀️ and authoritarian 👑 regimes! However, charts are always helpful so here is another to help you remember if the course countries have evolved or faced sudden changes.

Overview of Changes

CountryType of ChangeExamples
UKEvolution/Change in political institutions through changes to laws and political traditionThe Britain today did not come from sudden change but years of steady evolution of the political system. The monarchy slowly relinquished power through changes in British law and tradition.
MexicoSudden/Change through Revolutions
NigeriaSudden/Change through Coup d e tats led by the militaryNumerous military coups, some encouraged by the people when they felt regimes needed to be corrected
ChinaSudden/RevolutionCommunist Revolution
IranSudden/RevolutionRevolution of 1979
RussiaSudden/RevolutionCommunist Revolution 1919/Collapse of the Soviet Union 1991

Key Terms to Review (21)

Clientelism

: Clientelism refers to a political system where politicians exchange goods, services, or favors for the support and loyalty of individuals or groups. It is characterized by a patron-client relationship, where the politician acts as a patron who provides benefits in return for political support.

Colonialism

: Colonialism refers to the practice of a powerful country extending its control over weaker territories or countries for economic, political, and social purposes.

Communist Party

: The Communist Party refers to a political party that advocates for the establishment of a communist society, where the means of production are owned and controlled by the community as a whole.

Constitution

: A constitution is a set of fundamental principles or established precedents according to which a state or other organization is governed.

Core Countries

: Core countries are highly developed nations that have advanced economies, strong infrastructure, technological advancements, and high standards of living compared to other countries.

Coup d'état

: A coup d'état is an illegal and often violent seizure of power from a government, typically carried out by military forces or other internal factions within a country.

Glorious Revolution

: The Glorious Revolution refers to the peaceful overthrow of King James II in 1688 by William III and Mary II. It marked a shift towards constitutional monarchy in England and led to important political changes such as increased parliamentary power.

Magna Carta

: The Magna Carta was a document signed in 1215 that limited the power of the English monarchy and established certain rights for the nobles and citizens. It laid the foundation for constitutional law and influenced future democratic systems.

Military Forces

: Military forces are organized groups within a nation-state that are trained, equipped, and authorized by its government for defense purposes. They protect national security interests both domestically and internationally.

Parliament

: A parliament is a legislative body that represents the citizens of a country and makes laws. It is usually composed of elected representatives from different political parties.

Political Parties

: Political parties are organized groups of people who share similar political beliefs and work together to influence government policies and gain control of the government through elections.

Power and Authority

: Power refers to the ability to influence or control others within a political system, while authority is the legitimate right to exercise power.

Prime Minister

: The Prime Minister is the head of government in a parliamentary system, responsible for leading the executive branch and making important policy decisions.

Religion

: Religion also shapes the way people view the political system, either positively or negatively. Religious groups preach different sets of beliefs/ideologies and provide individuals with a perspective of politics that revolves around their own faith.

Revolution of 1910

: The Revolution of 1910 refers to the Mexican revolution that began in 1910 and resulted in the overthrow of President Porfirio Diaz's dictatorship. It was a major social and political upheaval that aimed to address issues such as land distribution, labor rights, and democratic reforms.

Rule of Law

: The rule of law refers to the principle that all individuals and institutions are subject to and accountable to the law, which is fairly applied and enforced. It ensures that no one is above the law.

Shah

: The term "Shah" refers to the title given to the monarch or king in Iran before the Islamic Revolution of 1979. It represents a hereditary ruler with absolute power.

Sharia Law

: Sharia law is an Islamic legal system derived from religious texts such as the Quran and Hadiths. It governs various aspects of personal conduct, family matters, criminal justice, and economic transactions according to Islamic principles.

Sources of Power

: Sources of power refer to the various means by which individuals, groups, or institutions can exert influence and control over others within a political system.

Theocracy

: A theocracy is a form of government where religious leaders hold both political power and authority. Laws are based on religious principles, and religious texts often serve as the foundation for governance.

Western-style constitution

: A Western-style constitution is a written document that outlines the fundamental principles, rights, and structures of government based on democratic ideals prevalent in Western countries.

1.5 Sources of and Changes in Power and Authority

7 min readmay 7, 2023

kelly-cotton

kelly-cotton

I

Isabela Padilha Vilela

kelly-cotton

kelly-cotton

I

Isabela Padilha Vilela

These two topics of study should really be studied in conjunction with one another because they build upon one another. In topic 1.5 you need to be able to identify where come from in the of the course( 🇨🇳 🇮🇷 🇷🇺 🇳🇬 🇲🇽 🇬🇧).

In topic 1.6 you are being asked to examine if the source of has changed in the course countries over time and why. You will also be asked to go one step further on the exam and, you guessed it, compare countries and their experiences or look for patterns that can be applied among countries.

Let's start with topic 1.5, . Power can come from constitutions, religions, , , legislatures, and popular support, but remember our focus also needs to be on how changed over time, and why.

Brief History of Each Course Country

Now you may be asking yourself, but how much history do I need to know in order to show changes in ? You should have a general knowledge of where the power to rule originated and basic changes over time, but you don't need to memorize the timeline of history for any nation with meticulous detail, so relax! Just the basics in this case. So let's go over the basics before we move onto a discussion of authority.

  1. UK—The political system in Britain is influenced by its history, and it's a long history. The UK was once ruled only by the monarchy who had absolute power, but the UK has a very evolutionary history. Over time, the monarchy lost power through moments like the and the . When the monarchy was restored in the 17th century, its powers were severely restricted by . The monarchy has no decision-making power. The power rests entirely in the and the .

    https://firebasestorage.googleapis.com/v0/b/fiveable-92889.appspot.com/o/images%2F-6TlRaFfSEIvU.jpg?alt=media&token=055a8b35-d38d-4c05-8908-7f29a21cb040

    Queen Elizabeth; image Courtesy of Wikimedia Commons

    https://firebasestorage.googleapis.com/v0/b/fiveable-92889.appspot.com/o/images%2F-ILoffxXJu1wm.jpg?alt=media&token=48062eff-b452-4cfe-b688-49edb1bdfb72

    Prime Minister Boris Johnson; image courtesy of Wikimedia Commons

  2. Mexico—This country has had a chaotic history of revolution and violence. Mexico transitioned from Spanish control to independence, but that independence was primarily under military dictatorships through the 19th centuries. After the , there was instability that was often calmed by authoritarian regimes. However, as the 20th century has come to a close, Mexico has become an emerging democracy, exhibiting characteristics like free and fair elections and .

    https://firebasestorage.googleapis.com/v0/b/fiveable-92889.appspot.com/o/images%2F-TjNvbUfvFeCR.jpg?alt=media&token=8472bd55-db69-4d29-b210-b9e5d8edbaae

    President Obrador; image Courtesy of Wikipedia

  3. Nigeria—This country has a long history of , having been under British rule until 1960. In 1960, however, they gained their independence. This has created a complex history in Nigeria, because on one hand the country was exposed to western beliefs like , but since independence has been gained, the military has been a tool to maintain control in the nation.

    https://firebasestorage.googleapis.com/v0/b/fiveable-92889.appspot.com/o/images%2F-7brUdeMcoNsM.jpg?alt=media&token=b76d746b-0417-4f49-b1d4-46a6ae9f1f39

    President Buhari; image courtesy of Wikipedia

  4. China—For centuries, dynastic rule influenced political, economic, and social culture in China. However, China was a victim of in the 19th century and revolution in the 20th century. The 20th century saw China become a communist nation under the leadership of General Mao. Authoritarian policies in regards to trade, education, and industrialization went through a period of reform under Deng Xiaoping, however there has been little move away from authoritarianism politically.

    https://firebasestorage.googleapis.com/v0/b/fiveable-92889.appspot.com/o/images%2F-lAqEhMGWcnMu.jpg?alt=media&token=77aad76e-229e-4822-b7fa-8522330e894d

    President Xi; image courtesy of Wikipedia

  5. Iran—A country of complex history, we can describe the history of this course country as "two histories at odds with one another." Iran has a long history with the of Islam, but its modern history is one of revolution that resulted in a that was modified after another revolution in 1979. Iran politically follows the principles of Shiism and a divine cleric, but this often clashes with the idea of the people's sovereignty, which was part of the pre and post 1979.

    https://firebasestorage.googleapis.com/v0/b/fiveable-92889.appspot.com/o/images%2F-Q6YUQrT8trRX.jpg?alt=media&token=e92d80d4-9fed-4a38-bc2c-ea2b9ce45b42

    Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei; image courtesy of Forbes

    https://firebasestorage.googleapis.com/v0/b/fiveable-92889.appspot.com/o/images%2F-EHGyD9IMMkjS.jpg?alt=media&token=114aa4cd-6c22-4987-9a5c-90afea4f8f97

    Iranian President Rouhani; image courtesy of DW

  6. Russia—Historically Russia was an autocratic nation, ruled by a tsar. In 1919, autocracy turned into dictatorship under the . In 1991, the Soviet Union broke apart and Russia re-emerged. However, years of communist rule did not disappear, despite some move toward more democratic tendencies under Boris Yeltsin. However, any movement toward democracy has taken a step back under Vladimir Putin.

https://firebasestorage.googleapis.com/v0/b/fiveable-92889.appspot.com/o/images%2F-KgTN97WZ5idw.jpg?alt=media&token=3bfe480d-d59e-4bbb-ba05-d3f2336bffa8

President Putin; image courtesy of Wikimedia Commons

These brief histories are important because in the CED you will see several examples of singled out. need to come from somewhere, and the histories above will help you to understand those and authority.

The Different Sources of Power

In this section we will go over the different and provide examples in each core country. These are the pointed out by the College Board, make sure you understand the concept of each of these and their role in maintaining power:

  • - 📜 A set of rules and principles established on principles or precedents that a state must abide by.

    • Example: In the United Kingdom, constitutional reforms allow for amends to be made to the document and provide stability over time.

  • - 🕌 can have a powerful influence over people and societies. can create a set of values that guide a community/group of people.

    • Example: Iran is a ruled on the foundation of the , which provides rules for of Muslim life which includes but is not limited to marriage, business transactions, and inheritance. In Iran, the exercises power over people and their daily lives.

  • - 🪖It refers to the ability of a group to impose power through military control. This can happen within borders or across borders. can impose auhtority through several ways, such as the use of military force, the threat of military force and/or the presence of the military.

    • Example: Nigeria's military dictatorships have used coercion to threaten the population and impose power. It highly limited civilians' political power as well as their rights and liberties.

  • Legislature - 📚The power of the legislature can vary from country to country. However, this body holds immense power as it can basically shape the political direction of a nation.

    • Example: The political elites in Russia have helped to maintain the power of the one-party system by passing election rules that favor those already in power.

  • Popular support - 💬 It refers to the degree in which one particular individual or group is endorsed by the people. It has a great influence in politics, as popular support can shape the decision of government and other organization.

    • Example: Through the process of the PRI party in Mexico has boosted popular support to remain in power.

💡 is the process in which politicians offer benefits, services, goods to supporters in exchange for their loyalty and support.

Changes in Source of Power

The CED is very clear with the examples of in each of the course countries, and when College Board takes the time to provide you examples, you need to know those examples! Let's go over them together.

  • The UK 🇬🇧—Several changes in regards to authority over time. Once authority lie with a King via divine right, but as time went on authority shifted from the monarchy to , and more directly the people as a result of constitutional reforms.

  • Mexico 🇲🇽 and Nigeria 🇳🇬—We have discussed several times how these authoritarian regimes are becoming more democratic and can be seen as emerging democracies. One source of legitimacy for regimes in recent times has been multi-party elections in which different parties have won power as a result of free and fair elections.

  • China 🇨🇳—Authority rests with the 's control over the military, and this, in turn, provides to maintain regime stability.

  • Iran 🇮🇷—Authority used to rest with a dictator, in fact it was a or a King that had the authority to rule, but in 1979 there was a revolution and the authority shifted to religious leaders, which still remains today!

  • Russia 🇷🇺—Authority rests with the political elite's back of a strong President, so in this case it is the support of the elite, not election results that provides the authority for the President to have such power.

One last thing before we leave this particular topic: differences in the way authority is maintained by democratic and authoritarian regimes. Democratic 🙋🏾‍♀️ regimes tend to evolve slowly over time, using non-violent means like elections. In authoritarian 👑 regimes we often see sudden changes as a result of revolution or coups d e'tat (military takeovers). So once again, be sure to study the examples above as they illustrate some of the differences between democratic 🙋🏾‍♀️ and authoritarian 👑 regimes! However, charts are always helpful so here is another to help you remember if the course countries have evolved or faced sudden changes.

Overview of Changes

CountryType of ChangeExamples
UKEvolution/Change in political institutions through changes to laws and political traditionThe Britain today did not come from sudden change but years of steady evolution of the political system. The monarchy slowly relinquished power through changes in British law and tradition.
MexicoSudden/Change through Revolutions
NigeriaSudden/Change through Coup d e tats led by the militaryNumerous military coups, some encouraged by the people when they felt regimes needed to be corrected
ChinaSudden/RevolutionCommunist Revolution
IranSudden/RevolutionRevolution of 1979
RussiaSudden/RevolutionCommunist Revolution 1919/Collapse of the Soviet Union 1991

Key Terms to Review (21)

Clientelism

: Clientelism refers to a political system where politicians exchange goods, services, or favors for the support and loyalty of individuals or groups. It is characterized by a patron-client relationship, where the politician acts as a patron who provides benefits in return for political support.

Colonialism

: Colonialism refers to the practice of a powerful country extending its control over weaker territories or countries for economic, political, and social purposes.

Communist Party

: The Communist Party refers to a political party that advocates for the establishment of a communist society, where the means of production are owned and controlled by the community as a whole.

Constitution

: A constitution is a set of fundamental principles or established precedents according to which a state or other organization is governed.

Core Countries

: Core countries are highly developed nations that have advanced economies, strong infrastructure, technological advancements, and high standards of living compared to other countries.

Coup d'état

: A coup d'état is an illegal and often violent seizure of power from a government, typically carried out by military forces or other internal factions within a country.

Glorious Revolution

: The Glorious Revolution refers to the peaceful overthrow of King James II in 1688 by William III and Mary II. It marked a shift towards constitutional monarchy in England and led to important political changes such as increased parliamentary power.

Magna Carta

: The Magna Carta was a document signed in 1215 that limited the power of the English monarchy and established certain rights for the nobles and citizens. It laid the foundation for constitutional law and influenced future democratic systems.

Military Forces

: Military forces are organized groups within a nation-state that are trained, equipped, and authorized by its government for defense purposes. They protect national security interests both domestically and internationally.

Parliament

: A parliament is a legislative body that represents the citizens of a country and makes laws. It is usually composed of elected representatives from different political parties.

Political Parties

: Political parties are organized groups of people who share similar political beliefs and work together to influence government policies and gain control of the government through elections.

Power and Authority

: Power refers to the ability to influence or control others within a political system, while authority is the legitimate right to exercise power.

Prime Minister

: The Prime Minister is the head of government in a parliamentary system, responsible for leading the executive branch and making important policy decisions.

Religion

: Religion also shapes the way people view the political system, either positively or negatively. Religious groups preach different sets of beliefs/ideologies and provide individuals with a perspective of politics that revolves around their own faith.

Revolution of 1910

: The Revolution of 1910 refers to the Mexican revolution that began in 1910 and resulted in the overthrow of President Porfirio Diaz's dictatorship. It was a major social and political upheaval that aimed to address issues such as land distribution, labor rights, and democratic reforms.

Rule of Law

: The rule of law refers to the principle that all individuals and institutions are subject to and accountable to the law, which is fairly applied and enforced. It ensures that no one is above the law.

Shah

: The term "Shah" refers to the title given to the monarch or king in Iran before the Islamic Revolution of 1979. It represents a hereditary ruler with absolute power.

Sharia Law

: Sharia law is an Islamic legal system derived from religious texts such as the Quran and Hadiths. It governs various aspects of personal conduct, family matters, criminal justice, and economic transactions according to Islamic principles.

Sources of Power

: Sources of power refer to the various means by which individuals, groups, or institutions can exert influence and control over others within a political system.

Theocracy

: A theocracy is a form of government where religious leaders hold both political power and authority. Laws are based on religious principles, and religious texts often serve as the foundation for governance.

Western-style constitution

: A Western-style constitution is a written document that outlines the fundamental principles, rights, and structures of government based on democratic ideals prevalent in Western countries.


© 2024 Fiveable Inc. All rights reserved.

AP® and SAT® are trademarks registered by the College Board, which is not affiliated with, and does not endorse this website.


© 2024 Fiveable Inc. All rights reserved.

AP® and SAT® are trademarks registered by the College Board, which is not affiliated with, and does not endorse this website.